Information mapping

Information mapping is a research-based method for writing clear and user focused information, based on the audience's needs and the purpose of the information. The method is applied primarily to designing and developing business and technical communications. It is used as a content standard within organizations throughout the world.

Overview of the information mapping method

The information mapping method is a research-based methodology used to analyze, organize and present information based on an audience's needs and the purpose of the information. The method applies to all subject matter and media technology. Information mapping has close ties to information visualization, information architecture, graphic design, information design, data analysis, experience design, graphic user interface design, and knowledge management systems.

Components of the method

Information mapping provides a number of tools for analyzing, organizing and presenting information.

Information types

Some of Robert E. Horn's best-known work was his development of the theory of information types. Horn identified six types of information that account for nearly all the content of business and technical communications. The types categorize elements according to their purpose for the audience:

Information Type	Description
Procedure	A set of steps an individual performs to complete a single task
Process	A series of events, stages or phases that occurs over time and has a specific outcome
Principle	A statement designed to dictate, guide or require behavior
Concept	A class or group of things that share a critical set of attributes
Structure	A description or depiction of anything that has parts or boundaries
Fact	A statement that is assumed to be true

Research-based principles

The information mapping method proposes six principles for organizing information so that it is easy to access, understand, and remember:

Principle	Description
Chunking	Break up information into small, manageable units
Relevance	Limit each unit of information to a single topic
Labeling	Label each unit of information in a way that identifies its contents
Consistency	Be consistent in use of terminology as well as in organizing, formatting and sequencing information
Accessible detail	Organize and structure information so those who need detail can access it easily, while those who don't can easily skip it
Integrated graphics	Use graphics within the text to clarify, emphasize and add dimension

Units of information

Documents written according to information mapping have a modular structure. They consist of clearly outlined information units (maps and blocks) that take into account how much information a reader is able to assimilate.

There is an essential difference between an information unit and the traditional text paragraph. A block is limited to a single topic and consists of a single type of information. Blocks are grouped into maps, and each map consists only of relevant blocks. The hierarchical approach to structuring information greatly facilitates electronic control of content via content management systems and knowledge management systems.

Advantages of information mapping

The information mapping method offers advantages to writers and readers, as well as to an entire organization.

Advantages for writers

Information mapping offers these advantages for writers:

• An easily learned systematic approach to the task of writing that once learned, enables writers to minimize down time and start writing immediately
• A subject-matter independent approach that can be applied to all business-related or technical content
• A content standard that greatly facilitates team writing and management of writing projects
• Enhanced writer productivity, with less time required for both draft development and review, and
• Easy updating and revision of content throughout its life cycle

Advantages for readers

Information mapping offers these advantages for readers:

• Quick, easy access to information at the right level of detail, even for diverse audiences
• Improved comprehension
• Fewer errors and misunderstandings
• Fewer questions for supervisors, and
• Shorter training cycles, less need for re-training

Advantages for organizations

Also an entire organization can benefit from using a content standard like information mapping if the method is used with the following objectives in mind:

Revenue growth by reducing time to create content and accelerating time to market

• Cost reduction by capturing employee knowledge, increasing operational efficiency, reducing support calls, and decreasing translation costs
• Risk mitigation by increasing safety and compliance

History[edit]

Information mapping was developed in the late 20th century by Robert E. Horn, a researcher in the cognitive and behavioral sciences. Horn was interested in visual presentation of information to improve accessibility, comprehension and performance. Horn's development of the information mapping method has won him recognition from the International Society for Performance Improvement and the Association for Computing Machinery.

Review of research

Many independent studies have confirmed that applying the information mapping method to business and technical communications results in quicker, easier access to information, improved comprehension and enhanced performance. It also facilitates repurposing for publication in different formats.^{[citation needed]}

Doubts have been raised over the strength of the research Horn uses to justify some of his principles. For instance, his chunking principle requires lists, paragraphs, sub-sections and sections in a document to contain no more than 7±2 chunks of information.^[1] Horn does not state where he got this principle, but an Information Mapping website stated that the principle is "based on George A. Miller's 1956 research".^[2] Miller did write a paper in 1956 called "The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two: Some Limits on our Capacity for Processing Information", but its relevance to writing is tenuous.^[3] Miller himself said that his research had nothing to do with writing.^[4] Insisting that lists, paragraphs, sub-sections and sections throughout a document contain no more than 7±2 chunks of information paradoxically assumes that the size of what is not read in a document can influence a reader's ability to comprehend what they do read.^[3]

References[edit]

1. ^ R.E. Horn, Developing Procedures, Policies & Documentation, Info-Map, Waltham, 1992, page 3-A-2.
2. ^ "Mapping FAQs". Infomap.com. Archived from the original on 2010-02-18. Retrieved 2017-03-14.
3. ^ Jump up to:^a b Geofrey Marnell, Essays on Technical Writing, Burdock Books, Brighton, 2016, pp. 111–155).
4. ^ See http://members.shaw.ca/philip.sharman/miller.txt, Viewed 14 January 2011.

Further reading[edit]

• Robert E. Horn. Mapping Hypertext: The Analysis, Organization, and Display of Knowledge for the Next Generation of On-Line Text and Graphics. ISBN 0-9625565-0-5
• Robert E. Horn. How High Can it Fly? Examining the Evidence on Information Mapping's Method of High-Performance Communication. Note: This publication is available for download on Horn's website: Chapter One and Chapter Two.

Information Mapping is a documentation methodology, developed by Robert E. Horn in 1972. Documents developed according to the Information Mapping methodology have an instantly-recognizable visual style. This is probably because most authors (or organizations) adopting the methodology focus on the style of the Information Mapping documentation itself, copying the style used by Information Mapping Inc. for their own documentation on Information Mapping. However, Information Mapping really stipulates the structure of the information, rather than the visual display of it. It is perfectly possible to adhere to the methodology but use a visual style that is markedly different to what is commonly thought of as 'Information Mapping documentation'.

Information Mapping is built on seven key principles. These are:

1. Chunking;
2. Relevance;
3. Labeling;
4. Consistency;
5. Integrated graphics;
6. Accessible detail;
7. Hierarchy of chunking and labeling.

Chunking

The methodology states that:

"Writers should group information into small, manageable units."

Information Mapping defines a 'manageable unit' as "no more than nine pieces of information", which is based on the oft-quoted 'seven-plus-or-minus-two' rule. Information Mapping dictates that this should apply to all levels of documentation - so a manual should have no more than nine chapters, and a bulleted list should have no more than nine list items. However, as discussed in Writing user instructions, this is not always practicable or necessarily desirable. That said, this principle - that information should be grouped into small, manageable units - is good advice from a comprehension perspective.

Relevance

The methodology states that:

"Writers should make sure that all information in one chunk relates to one main point based on that information's purpose or function for the reader."

Put simply, this rule states that a block of information should contain only one type of information. This means that you should not mix (for example) instructions with descriptions. Obviously both of these types of information are permissible (and often necessary) within the same publication. Information Mapping just states that they should be in separate 'blocks' within the document. So you may have a section called "How the XYZ works" and another called "Replacing the widget on the XYZ".

Labeling

The methodology states that:

"After organizing related sentences into manageable unit, writers should provide a label for each unit of information."

This rule states that each 'chunk' of information should have a 'label'. Many proponents of Information Mapping think that this label should appear (traditionally) on the left of the block of information, and word-wrapped within the label column. However, this is not strictly necessary. It is perfectly valid for the label to appear as a 'normal' heading that stretches into the 'content' column. In this context, 'labeling' is best interpreted as providing adequate headings, although headings will typically appear much more often in documents developed according to the Information Mapping methodology than in 'regular' documents.

Examples:

1. 'Traditional' Information Mapping block:

Company policy for system Userids

All users are required to keep their password secret. Users must change their password the first time they log onto the system, and then once a month thereafter. If a user does not change their password for 35 days, they will be prompted to do so by the sytem when they attempt to log on.

2. Adapted Information Mapping block:

Company policy for system Userids
	All users are required to keep their password secret. Users must change their password the first time they log onto the system, and then once a month thereafter. If a user does not change their password for 35 days, they will be prompted to do so by the sytem when they attempt to log on.

The important thing to remember is that labels must stand out from the text, to allow quick scanning (navigation via the labels). For this reason, it is recommended that the 'content' is always significantly indented (as shown in Example 2 above).

Consistency

The methodology states that:

"For similar subject matters, writers should use similar words, labels, formats, organizations, and sequences."

Consistency should be adhered to on two levels:

• Consistency in language;
• Consistency in format and structure.

Consistency in the language used within a document and across multiple documents within the same documentation set is important, as readers will rapidly become accustomed to the language used and will not have to 'decipher' the text. That is, they will not have to think about the meaning of a word, but will know intuitively (based on their earlier intraction wih this word) what is meant. If you use different words or phrases for the same thing, the user will be required (perhaps subconsciously) to decide each time whether this actually is the same thing as was referred to previously, or is something different. This will increase the time it takes them to assimilate the information.

Consistency in the format and structure of a document is also important. Within a single document, headings should be used consistently. This includes using the same size and typeface for headings at the same level, and also using headings at the same level of granularity. Across documents, consistency can be thought of as providing the same information in the same type of document. For example, if you are developing a suite of user procedures, then every user procedure document should contain the same information, at the same point in the document, and using the same headings and labels.

Integrated graphics

The methodology states that:

"Writers should use diagrams, tables, puictures, etc. as an integral part of the text, not as an afterthought added on when the writing is complete."

This simply means that graphics should be included wherever they are useful. This rule was probably included as a reaction to the prepondency for text-only documents. Integrating graphics typically gives a document a 'lighter' (less-dense) feel, and therefore facilitates comprehension. There are also times when a picture can show instantly what it would take several paragraphs of text to explain.

However, graphics in technical communications must always be functional. The Information Mapping documentation states that "approximately 50 percent of the adult population learns better from pictures and other graphics than from words", but this means that approximately 50% learn better from text! Therefore, graphics should always be in support of the text, and not as an alternative to it.

Note that Information Mapping considers tables to be 'graphics' as well - which explains their extensive use in Information Mapping. However, given that most tables contain text only, it is better to exclude tables from the definition. This allows you to better focus on 'real' graphics (including photos, technical illustrations, and charts and graphs) and identify opportunities for including these in a document.

Accessible detail

The methodology states that:

"Writers should write at a level of detail that makes the information the reader needs readily accessible, and makes the document usable for all readers. In other words, put what the reader needs where the reader needs it. Include clearly labeled overviews, reviews, descriptions, diagrams, and examples for all "abstract" presentations. Place the diagrams, and examples close tothe text they illustrate."

This principle can best be interpreted as simply providing information to a level of detail that is useful to the readers, and then making sure that the readers can easily-locate the relevant detail.

For example, in a set of maintenance instructions, saying simply "Remove the spigot shaft" may not be sufficient. Perhaps the reader does not know how to do this. Consider providing instructions explaining exactly how to remove it. Perhaps the reader is even unfamiliar with exactly what a spigot shaft is, and where it is located. So provide a diagram of one, and/or a photograph of a spigot shaft in-situ. Then clearly label each element - the instructions, the diagram and the photograph - so that users can directly locate them and understand what the element is showing.

Hierarchy of chunking and labeling

The methodology states that:

"Writers should organize small, relevant units of information into a hierarchy, and provide the larger group(s) they have created with a label(s)."

At its simplest, this rule simply means that:

1. A document should have a title (label in Information Mapping terminology);
2. The document should be split into sections (maps);
3. Each section should have a title (label);
4. Each section should be split into units of information (blocks);
5. Each unit of information should have a title (label).

Some authors struggle with Information Mapping, thinking that there are only three levels within this hierarchy: document, map, and block. This assumption is largely borne out of using the Information Mapping documents as an example, and using the Information Mapping templates which indeed only include these three levels.

However, if you consider this rule in conjunction with the 'chunking' rule, it effectively supports as many levels of the hierarchy as is necessary - as long as each node in the hierarchy has no more than nine sub-nodes.

It is also often assumed that heading numbers are 'no allowed', but again, this is a fallacy. In a three-level hierarchy, where the document is the highest level, and there are no more than 9 nodes at each level, there is not really a need for section numbers. However, once additional levels are inroduced, or the number of nodes is increased, heading numbers - and specifically hierarchical heading numbers (1, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 2, 2.1....) can greatly aid navigation. Information Mapping does not explicitly forbid them, so they can be used where it helps.

Example:

Corporate Security Policy
1. Controls on system access
1.1 System userids	Each user will be granted a unique password-protected userid which will allow them access to all (and only) functions required to perform their job. Userids must not be shared with other users, under any circumstances.
1.2 System passwords	All users are required to keep their password secret. Users must change their password the first time they log onto the system, and then once a month thereafter. If a user does not change their password for 35 days, they will be prompted to do so by the system when they attempt to log on.
2. Controls on physical access to buildings
2.1 Card key	etc.

Organization development

Organization development stems from the belief that systems drive behaviors, and that people within your organization all want to do their best work. The path to success is trust.

ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT PROCESS

Mike’s focus is to find and increase what’s working and decrease what’s not working. Together, we will work to bring your company to a greater level of success and prosperity. We gather data about the work and situation using a variety of methods. Then, we compare collected data against the areas of success and failure within your organization, allowing us to develop consulting, coaching, and workshops to accentuate what’s working well within the organization and minimize dysfunctional organizational challenges.

When challenges happen, the organization can absorb, learn, and evolve to increase what’s working and decrease what’s not.

Beyond processes, there’s an underlying cultural and interpersonal component that usually makes or breaks the success of organization development and engagement. That component is trust. Every action and decision has an implication on your organization’s trustworthiness.

STRATEGIES

ORGANIZATION DESIGN: DESIGNING TRUST-ATTRACTING ORGANIZATIONS

Any training and development effort is a waste of time and money without the right goals, roles, and people.

WHAT IS IT?

Organization design is the skeleton of your organization. A good design supports a healthy flow of work, cash, people, and customers while a bad design constricts these.

From Mike’s research within large and small organizations, there are simple organization design principles that will be implemented. Every employee is entitled to have a competent manager with the capability to bring value to their problem solving and decision making. Every manager is entitled to have employees that can work at their maximum effectiveness within their roles. Every organization is entitled to have a working system for performance improvement and increased effectiveness of staff.

WHY DOES IT MATTER?

In Mike’s research within organizations the idea of trust, felt-fairness, liberty, being unencumbered to complete your work without somebody (or manipulative procedure) constricting you, are what most people want from their employer.

Trust Attracting Organization:

Organizations that generate trust, truth, fairness, justice, friendliness, openness, mutual help and regard – with creativity and good feelings.

Trust Repelling Organization:

Organizations which support the negative aspects of human nature – autocratic coercion, greed, malice, secrecy and self-seeking – all of which are inhibitors of imagination, innovation, and creative effort.

WHAT ARE THE AREAS OF FOCUS?

1. Do we have a philosophy for how work gets done within the organization?
2. What is our current hierarchy and organization chart?
3. Does our current organization chart and philosophy match to achieve quality outcomes?
4. Does our current organization chart accurately reflect how work gets done?
5. How does our current organization design support or constrict our communication, innovation, and people completing great work?
6. Where in our current organization design are we creating unneeded or redundant work?
7. How can we make changes to our organization design to increase what is working well and decrease what is not working well?

HOW WILL YOU MAKE PROGRESS?

1. Faster, better-informed decision-making
2. Lower costs from cutting excess communication and approval layers
3. Managers who know what to do, when and why
4. Employees who can focus on the work by doing their best
5. Faster reactions to change, thanks to a workforce that know their jobs and how they can add value

ORGANIZATIONAL COMPLEXITY AND CHANGE

For the organization to thrive and last, processes must be understood and created to address an ambiguous future.

WHAT IS IT?

This organization development process assists leaders and leadership teams in developing the skills needed to understand how to work with complexity and change.

WHY DOES IT MATTER?

The rate of change and complexity of work is not slowing down. You constantly have to organize information available to you, and determine how to use it best to make choices. This skill can be developed and implemented in your organization.

WHAT ARE THE AREAS OF FOCUS?

While every organization development process changes to meet your organization and leaders where they are, the following areas of focus are meant to share what will be accomplished and developed.

1. Organizational complexity and change
2. Determining the current level of information and problem complexity
3. Leading through complexity and change in action
4. Organizing work for employees’ current level of complexity and change
5. Leading through complexity and change in action
6. Using complexity and change models to develop the next level of organizational leaders

HOW WILL YOU MAKE PROGRESS?

1. Management of organizational complexity that goes beyond strategic planning
2. Effective decision-making and problem-solving when faced with complexity, uncertainty and ambiguity
3. Working at both tactical and strategic levels
4. Navigating change and the increasing complexity using evidenced-based tools
5. Developing competence for leaders to lead the organization through times of complexity, high levels of ambiguity, and change, and coaching these abilities in middle management
6. Management of information complexity and problem complexity
7. How to determine organizational and individual capacity for managing information and problem complexity
8. Implementing specific coaching and mentoring tools to help your staff increase their ability to handle complexity and change
9. Succession planning for ensuring the future of the organization
10. Using Complexity and change models to develop the next level of organizational leaders

ORGANIZATIONAL CAPACITY AND GROWTH

Your organization will grow or wither based on the organizational system and your capacity to develop and sustain what works while eliminating what doesn’t work.

WHAT IS IT?

Organizational capacity is like a bucket that holds water. Your necessary productivity and skilled knowledge is the bucket. The people, products, processes, and procedures are the water.

Is the water filling the bucket? Is it overflowing? Is it too low?

WHY DOES IT MATTER?

When organizations grow and change in complexity, the problems that they felt do not go away – they increase. Understanding your current capacity and what problems are ‘normal vs. abnormal’ will enable you to build a process to fix what needs fixing, increase what is working, and decrease what is not working, leading to a robust, antifragile organization.

WHAT ARE THE AREAS OF FOCUS?

Through this process, we will identify within your organization and departments where you have a deficit or excess of capacity for growth. From the identification, we work to understand what current challenges and opportunities are needed for your organization to make progress. We then work together to develop a plan and progress steps to use the excess or deficit of capacity to make changes and sustainable operations to achieve growth and longevity of the organization.

We focus on:

1. The organization as a whole
2. The departments within the organization
3. The roles within the departments
4. The people who fill those roles

HOW WILL YOU MAKE PROGRESS?

1. Knowledge of where you have excess and deficit capacity within your organization and departments
2. A capacity building plan that will provide operations and structure to grow your organization

TALENT POOL DEVELOPMENT

A process to develop individuals with the necessary skills, knowledge, and competencies both cognitively and behaviorally for enhanced performance within the organization.

WHAT IS IT?

A process to develop people within the organization with the necessary skills, knowledge, and competencies (both cognitively and behaviorally) for enhanced performance. A mentoring program that will work to help to develop skills and knowledge focused on ensuring the organization’s long-term success. A purposeful path for job accountability and authority. An internal culture of continuous improvement, which occurs through succession planning and continued development of people and processes. All of these are substantial ways to advance the talent within your organization.

WHY DOES IT MATTER?

The talent pool development process aligns individuals’ aspirations and skills with the company’s current and future needs so that the interests of both can be supported. It is designed to increase productivity, create trust and to foster conditions where each employee is provided the greatest opportunity for creative expression through work performed for the company.

WHAT ARE THE AREAS OF FOCUS?

While every organization development process changes to meet your organization and leaders where they are, the following areas of focus are meant to share what will be accomplished and developed.

1. Understanding the current condition
2. Identifying what talent is within your organization
3. Putting differences to work in talent development

Coaching and feedback will be offered with organization development areas for enhanced internal systems and processes to the organization and high potential staff. Mike will serve as a resource coach and team development specialist for the group while they are achieving the determined areas of improvement.

HOW WILL YOU MAKE PROGRESS?

1. Competency metrics for internal benchmarking of current talent
2. Creation/Enhancement of interview processes to identify candidates for promotion and hiring
3. A focused mentorship program
4. Learning and development for mentors
5. Coaching for the mentors and their immediate supervisors
6. Integration of the new systems and complementing existing systems for performance appraisals
7. Increased efficiency through people doing their best work
8. Decreased dependence on managers to consistently solve problems
9. Continuous improvement of team culture
10. Appointing internal subject matter experts and integrating performance support systems

STRATEGIC PLANNING AND IMPLEMENTATION

You need to understand the needs, opportunities, strengths and conditions of your current, plus external competitive environment to determine what you will need in the future.

WHAT IS IT?

Strategic planning and implementation with Mike Cardus goes beyond the generic SWOT (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, threats) that is completed by a select group of people within your organization. Mike’s research shows that SWOT with your internal staff, with their current knowledge, is no better than brainstorming. You end up with lots of speculation, hollow choices, the loudest voice wins, and a list of ‘action items’ that would have happened without the Strategic Plan.

WHY DOES IT MATTER?

Strategic planning and implementation is the foundation of how your organization operates from today into the future. It is the process that identifies what is working to increase and what is not working to decrease then turns obstacles into opportunities shifting the odds of the current environment into future success, leading to enhanced returns on your investment in people, processes, and products.

Mike supports you to understand the needs, opportunities, strengths and conditions of your current environment and determine what you will need in the future.

WHAT ARE THE AREAS OF FOCUS?

Strategic Planning works with an intended 3 part focus: deliberate strategy – strategy that is realized; unrealized strategy – strategy not realized; emergent strategy – strategy that is not planned or intended and happens to emerge as the plan progresses.

1. External analysis of similar companies.
2. Internal analysis of operations, management, and organizational structure.
3. Developing reports and information
4. Development of a strategic implementation team
5. A process to implement the strategic plan
6. A visual (info-graphic like) planning progress map to show updates and progress
7. Developing an implementation process

HOW WILL YOU MAKE PROGRESS?

Together we will create a strategy, using data and feedback mechanisms to identify what’s working and not working, plus a process to implement your plan. This implementation is accomplished by ‘Making a Smarter Strategic Plan.’

Effectively Influencing Decision Makers: Ensuring That Your Knowledge Makes a Difference

Marshall Goldsmith

“The great majority of people tend to focus downward. They are occupied with efforts rather than results.  They worry over what the organization and their superiors ‘owe’ them and should do for them.  And they are conscious above all of the authority they ‘should have’.  As a result they render themselves ineffectual”.  -  Peter Drucker

Peter Drucker has written extensively about the impact of the knowledge worker in modern organizations.  Knowledge workers can be defined as people who know more about what they are doing than their managers do.  Many knowledge workers have years of education and experience in training for their positions, yet they have almost no training in how to effectively influence decision makers. 

As Peter Drucker has noted, “The greatest wisdom not applied to action and behavior is meaningless data.”

The eleven guidelines listed below are intended to help you do a better job of influencing decision makers.  In some cases, these decision makers may be immediate or upper managers – in other cases they may be peers or cross-organizational colleagues.  I hope that you find these suggestions to be useful in helping you convert your good ideas into meaningful action!

1.      Every decision that impacts our lives will be made by the person who has the power to make that decision – not the ‘right’ person, or the ‘smartest’ person, or the ‘best’ person – make peace with this fact.

As simple and obvious as this statement may seem, I am amazed at how few (otherwise intelligent) people ever deeply ‘get’ this point.  When your child comes home from school and complains, “It’s not fair!  The teacher gave me a ‘C’ and I really deserved an ‘A’!  We, as parents, should say, “Welcome to the real world, kid!  In life you have to accept the fact that decision-makers make decisions – and that you are not always the decision maker.”  Once we make peace with the fact that the people who have the power to make the decisions always make the decisions – and we get over whining because ‘life isn’t fair’ – we become more effective in influencing others and making a positive difference.  We also become happier!

2.     When presenting ideas to decision makers, realize that it is your responsibility to sell – not their responsibility to buy.

In many ways, influencing ultimate decision makers is similar to selling products or services to external customers.  They don’t have to buy – you have to sell!  Any good salesperson takes responsibility for achieving results.  No one is impressed with salespeople who blame their customers for not buying their products. 

While the importance of taking responsibility may seem obvious in external sales, an amazing number of people in large corporations spend countless hours “blaming” management for not buying their ideas.  Former Harvard Professor Chris Argyris pointed out how “upward feedback” often turns into “upward buck-passing”.  We can become “disempowered” when we focus on what others have done to make things wrong and not what we can do to make things right. 

If more time were spent on developing our ability to present ideas, and less time were spent on blaming others for not buying our ideas, a lot more might get accomplished.

A key part of the influence process involves the education of decision makers. 

To again quote Drucker, “The person of knowledge has always been expected to take responsibility for being understood.  It is barbarian arrogance to assume that the layman can or should make the effort to understand the specialist.” 

The effective influencer needs to be a good teacher.  Good teachers realize the communicating knowledge is often a greater challenge than possessing knowledge.

3.     Focus on contribution to the larger good – and the needs of the decision maker  – not just the achievement of your objectives.

An effective salesperson would never say to a customer, “You need to buy this product, because if you don’t, I won’t achieve my objectives!”

Effective salespeople relate to the needs of the buyers, not to their own needs.  In the same way effective upward influencers relate to the larger needs of the organization, not just to the needs of their unit or team.

When influencing decision makers, focus on the impact of your suggestion on the overall corporation.  In most cases the needs of the unit and the needs of the corporation are directly connected.  In some cases they are not.  Don’t assume that executives can automatically “make the connection” between the benefit to your unit and the benefit to the larger corporation.

4.     Strive to win the “big battles” – don’t waste your energy and “psychological capital” on trivial points.

Executive’s time is very limited.  Do a thorough analysis of ideas before “challenging the system”.  Don’t waste time on issues that will only have a negligible impact on results.  Focus on issues that will make a real difference.  Be willing to “lose” on small points. 

Be especially sensitive to the need to win trivial non-business arguments on things like restaurants, sports teams, or cars.  People become more annoyed with us for having to be “right” on trivia than our need to be right on important business points.  You are paid to do what makes a difference and to win on important issues.  You are not paid to win arguments on the relative quality of athletic teams.

5.     Present a realistic “cost-benefit” analysis of your ideas – don’t just sell benefits.

Every organization has limited resources, time, and energy.  The acceptance of your idea may well mean the rejection of another idea that someone else believes is wonderful.  Be prepared to have a realistic discussion of the costs of your idea.  Acknowledge the fact that something else may have to be sacrificed in order to have your idea implemented.

By getting ready for a realistic discussion of costs, you can “prepare for objections” to your idea before they occur.  You can acknowledge the sacrifice that someone else may have to make and point out how the benefits of your plan may outweigh the costs.

6.     “Challenge up” on issues involving ethics or integrity – never remain silent on ethics violations.

Enron, WorldCom, and other organizations have dramatically pointed out how ethics violations can destroy even the most valuable companies.  The best of corporations can be severely damaged by only one violation of corporate integrity.  Hopefully, you will never be asked to do anything by the management of your corporation that represents a violation of corporate ethics.  If you are, refuse to do it and immediately let upper management know of your concerns.  This action needs to be taken for the ultimate benefit of your company, your customers, your co-workers and yourself.

When challenging up try not to assume that management has intentionally requested you to do something wrong.  In some cases, a seemingly inappropriate request may merely be the result of a misunderstandings or poor communication.  Try to present your case in a manner that is intended to be helpful, not judgmental.

7.     Realize that powerful people are just as “human” as you are – don’t say, “I am amazed that someone at this level…”

It is realistic to expect decision makers to be competent; it is unrealistic to expect them to be anything other than normal humans.  Is there anything in the history of the human species that indicates when people achieve high levels of status, power, and money they become completely “wise” and “logical”?  How many times have we thought, “I would assume someone at this level…” followed by “should know what is happening”, “should be more logical”, “wouldn’t make that kind of mistake”, or “would never engage in such inappropriate behavior”? 

Even the best of leaders are human.  We all make mistakes.  When your managers make mistakes, focus more on helping them than judging them. 

8.     Treat decision makers with the same courtesy that you would treat customers - don’t be disrespectful.

While it is important to avoid “kissing up” to decision makers, it is just as important to avoid the opposite reaction.  A surprising number of middle managers spend hours “trashing” the company and its executives or making destructive comments about other co-workers.  When reviewing summary 360° feedback on leaders, the item, “avoids destructive comments about the company or co-workers” regularly scores in the “bottom ten” on co-workers satisfaction with peers.  

Before speaking it is generally good to ask four questions:

·        Will this comment help our company?

·        Will this comment help our customers?

·        Will this comment help the person that I am talking to?

·        Will this comment help the person that I am talking about?

If the answers are no, no, no, and no – don’t say it!  There is a big difference between total honesty and dysfunctional disclosure.  As we discussed earlier, it is always important to “challenge up” on integrity issues.  It is inappropriate to stab decision makers in the back.

9.     Support the final decision of the organization – don’t say, “They made me tell you” to direct reports.

Assuming that the final decision of the organization is not immoral, illegal, or unethical – go out and try to make it work!  Managers who consistently say, “They told me to tell you” to co-workers are seen as “messengers” not leaders.  Even worse, don’t say, “those fools told me to tell you”.  By demonstrating our lack of commitment to the final decision we may sabotage the chances for effective execution.

A simple guideline for communicating difficult decisions is to ask, “How would I want someone to communicate to their people if they were passing down my final decision and they disagreed with me?”  Treat decisions makers in the same way that you would want to be treated if the roles were reversed.  For example, if you stab your boss in the back in front of your direct reports, what are you teaching your direct reports to do when they disagree with you?

10.           Make a positive difference – don’t just try to “win” or “be right”.

We can easily become more focused on what others are doing wrong, than how we can make things better.  An important guideline in influencing up is to always remember your goal – make a positive difference for the organizations.

Corporations are different than academic institutions.  In an academic institution, the goal may be just sharing diverse ideas, without a need to impact the bottom line.  Hours of acrimonious debate can be perfectly acceptable. In a corporation, sharing ideas without having an impact is worse than useless.  It is a waste of the stockholders money and a distraction from serving customers.

When I was interviewed in the Harvard Business Review, I was asked, “What is the most common ‘area for improvement’ for the executives that you meet?  My answer was “winning too much”.  Focus on making a difference.  The more other people can “be right” or “win” with your idea, the more likely your idea is to be successfully executed. 

11.           Focus on the future – “let go” of the past.

One of the most important behaviors to avoid is “whining” about the past.  Have you ever managed someone who incessantly whined about how bad things are?  When people consistently whine, they inhibit any change they may have for impacting the future.  Their managers tend to view them as annoying.  Their direct reports view them as inept.  Nobody wins.

Successful people love getting ideas aimed at helping them achieve their goals for the future.  They dislike being “proven wrong” because of their mistakes in the past.  By focusing on the future you can concentrate on what can be achieved tomorrow, as opposed to what was not achieved yesterday.  This future orientation may dramatically increase your odds of effectively influencing decision makers.  It will also help you build better long-term relationships with people at all levels of your organization.

In summary, think of the years that you have spent “perfecting your craft”.  Think of all of the knowledge that you have accumulated.  Think about how your knowledge can potentially benefit your organization.  How much energy have you invested in acquiring all of this knowledge?  How much energy have you invested in learning to present this knowledge to decision makers – so that you can make a real difference?  My hope is that by making a small investment in learning to influence decision makers, you can make a large, positive difference for the future of your organization!