Principles of Marketing. 5. Market Segmentation, Targeting, and Positioning. Part 3-5.

 

5.3 Segmentation of International Markets

Challenges of Segmenting International Markets

As we’ve outlined in this chapter, companies can’t be all things to all people because buyers differ in terms of their needs, wants, and demands. Accordingly, just as with consumer markets and B2B markets, companies typically find it necessary to segment international markets.

That’s not to say that segmenting international markets is easy; rather, the reverse is true: it adds a whole new set of complications, including differences in cultural, economic, and political environments in various countries. Additionally, because of those cultural, economic, and political differences, consumers in international markets tend to be more diverse in character than domestic markets. Moreover, the range of income levels and populations and the diversity of lifestyles in international markets tend to be significantly greater than in the domestic market.30 Accordingly, a single marketing strategy for all segments is questionable at best.

Advantages of Segmenting International Markets

The advantages of segmenting international markets aren’t all that different from the advantages of segmenting the consumer or B2B markets, but there are some subtle differences. A marketer in the United States may have a much easier time understanding the needs and wants of US consumers, but that may not be the case with international consumers. Segmenting the international market and conducting market research allows the marketer to have a better understanding of international customers. It also enables the marketer to identify similarities and differences across international markets, which may lead them to combine segments across countries or even regions.31

Methods of Segmenting International Markets

There are four primary methods of segmenting international markets, as shown in Figure 5.8.

Figure 5.8 Segmenting International Markets (attribution: Copyright Rice University, OpenStax, under CC BY NC-SA 4.0 license)

Geographic Segmentation

Just as with domestic markets, international markets can be segmented geographically. A company might segment by regions, such as Western Europe, the Middle East, Africa, Latin America, etc. Keep in mind, however, that although geographic segmentation groups countries by location, they may be very different from one another in other respects. For example, if you were to consider the countries included in a Western European region, you’d find that, both culturally and economically, the United Kingdom and Scotland are very similar, but both differ significantly from neighboring Ireland.32 Similarly, people in West Africa tend to share similarities in dress, cuisine, and music, but these characteristics aren’t shared extensively with groups outside of West Africa.33

In terms of geographic segmentation, marketers also need to consider the infrastructure of the country—the basic physical systems of the nation, such as roads, sewage treatment, communication, water treatment, electricity, etc. You may have the best product for the consumers in the international market segment, but if the infrastructure is such that you can’t reasonably get the products to the consumers, that represents a restraining force that limits the opportunity.

Although the project is controversial, China has invested billions of dollars in an effort to strengthen its economy and global trade through its Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), a vast network of railways, energy pipelines, and highways through six economic corridors, both westward through former Soviet republics and southward to Pakistan, India, and Southeast Asia. In order to expand maritime trade traffic, China is investing in port development along the Indian Ocean, from Southeast Asia to East Africa and parts of Europe. The BRI spans a multitude of infrastructure projects intended to promote the flow of goods and foreign investment and is expected to impact more than 80 countries.34

Segmentation Based on Political and Legal Factors

As you’ve seen from our discussion of segmenting consumer markets, it’s often done on the basis of factors such as age, gender, product usage, personality, etc. That’s true as well in international markets, but the marketer needs to add still another dimension: country characteristics. These characteristics are typically political and legal factors, such as the type and stability of the government, how receptive the government is to foreign firms, monetary regulations, and how complex the bureaucracy of the nation is.35 There are numerous other governmental policies that can interfere with international trade, such as tariffs (taxes imposed on imports), import quotas, currency controls, and local content requirements.

In 2022, in response to Russia’s invasion of Ukraine, major sanctions have been put in place against Russia by the United States, the European Union, and the United Kingdom. For example, the United Kingdom imposed a 35 percent tax on some Russian imports, and several international companies like McDonald’s, Coca-Cola, Starbucks and Marks & Spencer have either suspended operations in Russia or have withdrawn altogether. It doesn’t take much to imagine the financial impact on Russia as a result of these sanctions.36

Segmentation Based on Economic Factors

Still another way to segment markets internationally is on the basis of economic factors—the level of economic development and the income levels of the population. This is often differentiated on the basis of whether the country is developing, developed, or underdeveloped. This classification is based on the nation’s economic status (i.e., gross domestic product, gross national product, per capita income, degree of industrialization, and standard of living).

Developed countries typically have a high rate of industrialization and a relatively high level of individual income. Unemployment and poverty are typically low in developed nations, and citizens enjoy a relatively high standard of living, along with higher life expectancy.37 It’s likely in developed nations that companies will focus their international marketing efforts. According to the United Nations in 2020, 36 countries were classified as developed; interestingly enough, all of these countries were located in either North America, Europe, or “Developed Asia and Pacific.”38

Developing countries, on the other hand, have a lower standard of living, a lower per capita income, and a slow rate of industrialization. Unemployment and poverty tend to be relatively high compared to developed countries, as are infant mortality rates.39 The United Nations categorized 126 countries as developing, and all of these were located in either Africa, Asia, Latin America or the Caribbean.40

Underdeveloped countries are less developed economically than most other nations. These countries typically have little industry, and the standard of living is considerably lower than in developed or developing countries. Infrastructure may also be compromised in terms of roads, sewage treatment, water quality, etc. As a general rule, although there may be an attractive market for your company’s product or service in an underdeveloped country, the challenges of getting the product into the customer’s hands are often difficult to overcome.

Segmentation Based on Cultural Factors

Cultural factors, such as common language, religions, values, and attitudes, can also be used to segment a country or region. McDonald’s uses a “think global, act local” strategy to help meet the cultural needs of various market segments. On one hand, it offers a standardized menu of offerings worldwide, like McNuggets and the McFlurry. On the other hand, it customizes other offerings on its menu to adapt to the cultural requirements of consumers. For example, in India, in order to appeal to vegetarian and non-beef-eating customers, McDonald’s introduced the Maharaja Mac, which is made with a corn and cheese patty. The company also used the term “Maharaja” to appeal to India’s history and liking of royalty and called it the “Social Burger” to suggest that it can be eaten quickly, giving people more time to spend with friends.41

McDonald’s not only customizes its menu based on where it operates, but it also customizes its digital and TV advertisements depending on each country and consumer segment. For example, in Singapore, McDonald’s ads attempted to appeal to consumers’ love of nightlife by showing how McDonald’s can enhance a night out, whereas in the United Kingdom, the company created cartoon ads focusing on Happy Meals to attract the large segment of children in the UK.42

Not to be outdone by McDonald’s, Burger King also offers a wide variety of international menu items that aren’t available in the United States. Did you know that there’s a Spicy Shrimp Whopper available in Japan and a SufganiKing (Donut Burger) in Israel? In Norway, where there is one sauna for every two people, Burger King opened a fully operational spa complete with a 15-person sauna and media lounge where customers can enjoy their meals.43

One model that is particularly useful in assessing culture is social psychologist Geert Hofstede’s cultural dimensions, originally published in the 1970s. Hofstede had studied IBM employees in over 50 countries and identified five dimensions that could be used to distinguish one culture from another.44 Four of these dimensions directly affect marketing in different cultures:

• Power Distance Index (PDI). This dimension refers to how much power inequality exists within a culture and the degree to which people are accepting of this inequality. A high PDI score suggests that society accepts an unequal distribution of power, whereas a low PDI score means that power is shared and widely dispersed. If you’re curious, the United States has a moderately low PDI score of 40 on a scale of 1 to 100, compared to a world average of 55.45 This means that the United States is less accepting of hierarchy and authority than nations such as Malaysia, which has the highest power distance index in the world.46 This cultural dimension plays an important role in marketing because, in countries where there is a high power distance index, marketers need to appeal to the leadership or the head of the family, whereas in low power distance index countries, it’s more important to reach a broad range of “ordinary” people who will be the ultimate decision makers.
• Individualism versus Collectivism (IDV). This dimension refers to whether the culture emphasizes the needs and goals of the group as a whole or whether individual needs are paramount.47 Think of individualism and collectivism as an “I” versus a “we” orientation. An individualistic society places emphasis on attaining personal goals, whereas a collectivist culture places emphasis on group goals and the well-being of the group. The United States has a very high individualism score of 91, compared to many Latin American countries such as Ecuador and Guatemala, which have single-digit individualism scores.48 The implications for marketing are important here because for countries with high individualism, the marketing messages should emphasize how your products or services benefit them individually, such as by saving time and rewarding themselves. On the other hand, in countries with a low individualism ranking, it’s more important to stress how buying your company’s products will benefit the community as a whole.
• Uncertainty Avoidance (UAI). This dimension refers to the degree to which a society avoids risk or ambiguity. Societies with a high degree of uncertainty avoidance compensate for this uncertainty by establishing rules, policies, and procedures, whereas societies with low uncertainty avoidance more readily accept change. The UAI for the United States is 46, putting it into the moderate range compared to European nations like Italy (UAI of 75) and Poland (UAI of 93).49 Let’s consider how this affects marketing. Cultures with high uncertainty avoidance generally prefer to have product characteristics clearly spelled out, complete with product warranties and money-back guarantees. For example, if you want to market automobiles in that type of culture, it would be important to focus on the safety features of the car. Conversely, cultures with low uncertainty avoidance are more accepting of trying something new.
• Masculinity/Femininity (MAS). This dimension refers to the degree to which gender-specific roles are valued in the society: Are “masculine” values such as achievement, ambition, and acquisition or “feminine” values such as quality of life and service to others valued more? In countries with a high masculinity ranking (e.g., Japan), men are intended to lead; women are supposed to follow. This is in direct contrast to countries with a low masculinity ranking (such as the United States and Canada), where women are treated equally to men and gender roles are more fluid. Societies with low masculinity would tend to respond negatively to gender-oriented promotion, so a neutral approach that appeals to both men and women would be more appropriate.50 Consider how many brands in the United States focus on female empowerment and positive body image. That type of advertising would not appeal to a society with a masculine orientation.

Knowledge Check

It’s time to check your knowledge on the concepts presented in this section. Refer to the Answer Key at the end of the book for feedback.

1.

The Hofstede cultural dimension that assesses the degree to which a society avoids risk or ambiguity is known as ________.

1. masculinity/femininity
2. uncertainty avoidance
3. power distance index
4. individualism versus collectivism

2.

Jamal’s company is looking to expand into a market in West Africa, but Jamal wants to ensure that there are roads, bridges, nearby airports, and shipping terminals from which to distribute the product. Jamal is examining the country’s ________.

1. infrastructure
2. governmental stability
3. inflation and unemployment rates
4. culture

3.

Alexis is making a sales presentation in Japan, and she realizes suddenly realizes that she is the only woman in the meeting. This suggests that Japan has a high ________.

1. degree of uncertainty avoidance
2. individualism ranking
3. power distance index
4. masculinity ranking

4.

Jose’s firm is looking to market its products in Venezuela, but the marketing department is concerned about the current inflation rate in the country. This would be considered a(n) ________ factor.

1. geographic
2. political
3. economic
4. cultural

5.

Which Hofstede cultural dimension assesses the degree to which gender-specific roles are valued in a society?

1. Power distance index
2. Masculinity/femininity
3. Uncertainty avoidance
4. Individualism versus collectivism

5.4 Essential Factors in Effective Market Segmentation

Essential Factors in Effective Market Segmentation

There’s an acronym you can remember for the essential factors in effective and successful market segmentation—ADAMS. The acronym stands for five criteria:

• Accessible
• Differentiable
• Actionable
• Measurable
• Substantial

First, a market segment should be accessible. Can you reach consumers in that segment at an affordable cost, given the strengths and abilities of your marketing department? For example, if you discover that certain segments respond more effectively to outdoor advertising, social media campaigns, TV infomercials, or print ads, does your organization have the capabilities (and budget) to reach that segment?

Second, a market segment should be differentiable. In an ideal world, a market segment should be internally homogeneous (i.e., consumers within that segment have similar preferences and characteristics) but externally heterogeneous (i.e., different segments should be quite distinct and different from each other). You have to clearly define the differences between market segments so that the marketing programs directed at them can be implemented without overlap.

Third, a market segment should be actionable. Is it practical (or profitable) to execute a marketing strategy aimed at that segment? A market segment should be able to respond to a certain marketing strategy and have outcomes—e.g., awareness, interest, or purchase—that can be easily quantified.

Fourth, a market segment should be measurable. You should be able to accurately estimate the size of the market segment in terms of either sales value or number of customers so that you can decide whether, how, and to what extent you should focus your efforts on that segment.

Finally, a market segment should be substantial. It doesn’t make sense to waste resources to market the product or service to a group too small to justify the expenditure of resources.51

Knowledge Check

It’s time to check your knowledge on the concepts presented in this section. Refer to the Answer Key at the end of the book for feedback.

1.

Mateus is a marketer for a consumer products company. His company is considering marketing a new breakfast drink, but Mateus wants to make certain that there is a sufficient number of consumers in his target audience to make the new product development process worthwhile. Which essential factor of market segmentation is he analyzing?

1. Accessible
2. Differentiable
3. Actionable
4. Measurable

2.

Wall Enterprises is considering developing a new product for a market segment that has been identified by marketing research. However, based on the research, it appears that the market segment may be smaller than originally anticipated. Which essential factor of market segmentation does this reflect?

1. Accessible
2. Differentiable
3. Substantial
4. Actionable

3.

Alma is analyzing the market segment she has identified for a new service to determine whether her firm can reach the consumers in that market within the constraints of her budget, given the resources of the firm. Which essential factor of market segmentation does this reflect?

1. Accessible
2. Actionable
3. Substantial
4. Measurable

4.

Idris has been researching a potential market segment for his company’s new product. He is concerned that, although the product holds considerable promise, the advertising campaign would be beyond the company’s budget. Which essential factor of market segmentation appears to be lacking in Idris’s analysis?

1. Differentiable
2. Substantial
3. Measurable
4. Accessible

5.

Which essential factor in selecting a target market refers to the ability to accurately determine the size of the market in terms of either sales volume or number of customers?

1. Actionable
2. Differentiable
3. Measurable
4. Substantial

5.5 Selecting Target Markets

Target Markets Defined

Ultimately, the purpose of segmenting a market is to highlight the differences between groups of customers so that you can decide on which group(s) to focus your marketing efforts and resources—that’s your target market (Figure 5.9).

Figure 5.9 Target marketing involves segmenting customer groups and focusing marketing resources on the segments that are most likely to purchase the product or service. (credit: “Three Arrows in the Centre of a Dart Board” by Marco Verch/flickr, CC BY 2.0)

Think of your target market in terms of focusing your marketing resources on segments that are more likely to buy from you. The bottom line is that target marketing is a more efficient, effective, and affordable way to reach customers and generate business. It’s simply a subset of the total market.

Keep in mind that the target market isn’t the same as the target audience. The target audience is narrower in that it refers to the group of consumers you expect to actually purchase the product. The audience may or may not overlap with the target market. For example, a children’s toy may have a target market of boys between the ages of 6 and 12, but it’s the boys’ parents (who actually purchase the toy) who are the target audience. Let’s take a look at how LEGO has mastered this concept.

Marketing in Practice

LEGO

Figure 5.10 LEGO’s segmentation strategy is to focus its marketing resources on parents who make the purchasing decisions and are interested in educating their children. (credit: “Lego” by Slack pics/flickr, CC BY 2.0)

You might think that children are the primary target market of toy manufacturers, but smart toy marketers know that they also have to market to parents because it’s parents who actually buy the toys for their children. The marketers at LEGO (see Figure 5.10) seemed to have figured this out and have made the brand parent-approved by combining fun for children with an educational “twist.”

LEGO brands its products not only as a creative outlet for children but also an opportunity to grow their interest in STEAM—a learning approach that incorporates science, technology, engineering, the arts, and mathematics. For example, one of its websites features education sets for children from preschool through middle school that promote learning through the toys. Another of its websites has an entire section of tips for playful parenting with LEGO bricks.52 It also has websites for daily LEGO challenges and even daily build challenges and LEGO lessons for families at home.

Parents today want to buy their children toys that are safe and fun and that help them learn, and LEGO seems to have been able to win over the hearts (and money) of its target audience.

For more information about LEGO and STEAM, watch this video from Kansas City PBS.

Block by block: LEGO robotics builds interest in STEM

Another important concept in target marketing is what’s known as a buyer persona. A buyer persona is a semi-fictional representation of an ideal customer that helps marketers understand and relate to the target market. Buyer personas are intended to help marketers “visualize” those to whom they are selling so they can fine-tune their marketing messages.

Best Buy used personas in precisely this way. Its buyer personas are “Buzz” (the young tech enthusiast), “Barry” (the wealthy professional), “Ray” (the family man), and “Jill” (a soccer mom who is the main shopper for the household but usually avoids electronics stores).53

What’s typically included in the buyer persona? Some examples include the following:

• Name. It may seem silly to include a made-up persona name like Best Buy did, but it’s done so that the marketing team can more easily discuss their customers and plan how to reach them.
• Age. The age (or age range) of a persona allows for understanding generation-specific characteristics. As we pointed out in our earlier discussion of using age as a way to segment the market, consumers within the same age group tend to share characteristics and purchase preferences.
• Interests. The interests of the buyer persona describe things like hobbies or what they do in their spare time.
• Media Usage. What media platforms does the buyer persona use? Television, radio, the Internet? This is important because the marketer wants to know where to reach these “people” with their marketing messages.
• Finances. The income and other financial characteristics of the buyer personas help marketers glean insights as to what types of products or services will pique the interests of these buyer personas. These financial characteristics also assist in making decisions about price points and promotions that would be successful in reaching these customers.
• Brand Affinities. Do they like certain brands? If so, this can provide the marketer with valuable information about the type of content to which they best respond.54

Link to Learning

Importance of Buyer Personas

Customer personas are a tool to help marketers better understand their potential customers. Learn what a customer persona is and how to develop them from this brief Go Daddy video.

How to Create a Customer Persona to Understand Your Ideal Client

Also, check out this video from HubSpot’s Stephen Higgins on how to use buyer personas to drive your marketing strategy.

HubSpot's Stephen Higgins Explains Buyer Personas

Target Market Strategies

Thus far, we’ve discussed the how of segmenting a market and selecting target markets. At this point, it’s up to the marketer whether the company will focus its efforts and resources on one or more of the identified segments or instead cater to the mass market. That choice is the determining factor in the company’s marketing mix and its positioning plank. There are four generic target marketing strategies, as illustrated in Figure 5.11.

Figure 5.11 Target Marketing Strategies (attribution: Copyright Rice University, OpenStax, under CC BY NC-SA 4.0 license)

Let’s look at each of these strategies more closely.

Undifferentiated Marketing (Mass Marketing)

Sometimes there are no strong distinctions in customer characteristics. In cases like this, the costs involved in developing separate marketing mixes for separate target markets doesn’t make financial sense. That’s when a company may decide to use a single marketing mix for the entire market.

Let’s imagine the entire market as one big apple pie. With undifferentiated marketing, the company doesn’t take just one slice or perhaps a few slices of the pie—it takes the whole thing. The concept of undifferentiated marketing is quite simple. You want to reach as many people as possible and hope they’ll jump on board with your product or service. Mass marketing is typically used when a brand has a product or service that has high market appeal, such as things that most (or maybe even all) people will always need or want. Consider a product that nearly everyone purchases, like soft drinks. Now think about all the advertising messages you get for a brand like Coca-Cola—you’ll see TV commercials, magazine ads, billboards, banner ads in search engines, and the list goes on. That’s the hallmark of mass marketing.

One of the biggest advantages of undifferentiated marketing is the scope and cost-efficiency of advertising on a much larger scale. Every single marketing message can be deployed across a variety of media channels and can potentially reach millions of consumers. This is where economies of scale come into play: with high-volume sales, production becomes less expensive because costs can be spread out over a larger amount of goods. That’s a huge advantage compared to companies that produce products for smaller, more precisely targeted audiences. It’s like buying in bulk at Sam’s Club or Costco—because you buy so much of a product, the cost is lower. Companies that use undifferentiated marketing experience the same thing.55

Differentiated Marketing (Segmented Marketing)

Now let’s take that same apple pie (the entire market), but instead of taking the whole thing, we’re going to take only some of it. Perhaps we’ll take just a few slices, or maybe we’ll take more. It depends on how many target markets you want to serve. That’s the premise of differentiated marketing.

This type of market targeting is one of the most common. A company identifies several target markets and designs separate, concentrated strategies for each. Separate brands are developed to serve each of the segments. Consider Nike, for example, which (like most apparel companies) offers different products for different segments. When Nike began its business, the founders were both competitive distance runners, so they targeted people like themselves as a segment of the running shoe market and the brand took off. However, in order to grow the business, Nike now focuses on three segments—women, young athletes, and runners.56

The automobile market is another good example of a clearly segmented market. Look around you on any given day, and you’ll clearly see that people want different types of vehicles—small cars, big cars, SUVs, trucks, hybrids, and luxury cars. Many of the car makers like GM, Ford, Toyota, Honda, and others generally offer cars for most or all of the segments. For example, Honda's lineup includes models like the CR-V compact SUV, the Civic compact car, the midsize Honda Accord sedan, larger SUVs, and even a minivan.57

Concentrated Marketing (Niche Marketing)

Now we’re going to take that same apple pie (remember, representing the entire market), and we’re only going to take a single slice, and perhaps a small one at that. That’s concentrated marketing.

Concentrated marketing doesn’t mean that the company hasn’t identified other target markets; it simply means that it chooses not to serve all of them. Some markets may not be attractive; other markets may not align with the company’s business strengths. Therefore, the company focuses on just one target market with a single marketing mix. It channels all of its marketing efforts toward that specific segment with the aim of “owning” it over its competitors and creating strong brand loyalty.58

A good example of concentrated marketing is the eco-friendly cosmetics retailer LUSH. LUSH advocates for ethical buying and purity of handmade products and doesn’t use animals in testing its products. As a matter of fact, at least half of its website is dedicated to fighting animal testing and overuse of plastic packaging and creating environmental awareness. The company also differentiates itself from its competitors with eco-friendly packaging and organic ingredients.59

This is a smart strategy for smaller companies or companies with limited resources that might be stretched thin if they attempt to compete in too many market segments. It has the added benefit that R&D and marketing can concentrate on understanding and meeting the needs of one group of customers rather than a diverse base of customers.

Micromarketing (Customized Marketing)

Micromarketing goes one step further than concentrated marketing and targets a specific group of individuals within a niche market based on specific information that has been collected about them.

For a good example of micromarketing, consider the real estate industry. A realtor may specialize in commercial sales or residential sales. Within the scope of residential sales, that realtor may drill down further and specialize in new construction, luxury properties, land and development, over-55 communities, or farms/ranches/equestrian properties.

Now let’s assume that you’re in the market for an expensive home in a particular area of the city. You’d likely contact a realtor who has developed a reputation in dealing with properties in a specific price range and knows the area where you’d like to move. That realtor is going to consider your specific needs and demands and will invest their efforts in finding a property that meets as many of your requirements as possible. That’s micromarketing.

Stitch Fix is another good example of a company that uses micromarketing. Stitch Fix is an online personal styling service for men, women, and children that sends a selection of clothing and accessories to your door using a mix of machine learning, data, algorithms, and human stylists. The company uses “85 meaningful data points” about each customer, and based on those data points, it predicts clothing choices that the customer will want. If they doesn’t like the product, they can just send it back with a prepaid, printable label within 30 days.60 You can’t get much more personalized than that!

Knowledge Check

It’s time to check your knowledge on the concepts presented in this section. Refer to the Answer Key at the end of the book for feedback.

1.

M&M’s addresses people of all ages and appeals to everyone looking for sweets (that melt in your mouth, not in your hand). What target marketing strategy does M&M’s use?

1. Differentiated marketing
2. Concentrated marketing
3. Undifferentiated marketing
4. Micromarketing

2.

A ________ is a semi-fictional representation of your ideal customer that helps you understand and relate to the audience to which you want to market your product and/or services.

1. buyer persona
2. target market
3. niche market
4. brand affinity

3.

Lefty’s is a retail shop that makes specific products like left-handed scissors and left-handed notebooks for the population of left-handed people. What target marketing strategy does Lefty’s use?

1. Undifferentiated marketing
2. Differentiated marketing
3. Concentrated marketing
4. Micromarketing

4.

A running shoe company specializes in designing sustainable sneakers from recycled and renewable materials for athletes who care about the environment, as well as performance models of running shoes with less cushioning for runners who are concerned with speed. What target marketing strategy does the running company use?

1. Concentrated marketing
2. Undifferentiated marketing
3. Differentiated marketing
4. Micromarketing

5.

55places.com is a website for active adult “retirement” communities in the United States. It features unbiased information, current home sale listings, floor plans, photos, and third-party reviews. All the communities listed on the website are for residents who are age 55+. What target marketing strategy does the company use?

1. Undifferentiated marketing
2. Differentiated marketing
3. Micromarketing
4. Concentrated marketing

https://tinyurl.com/yps79kpu

Community of Practice

 

A Community of Practice (CoP) is a dynamic and organic group of individuals who share a common interest, profession, or passion and come together to learn, collaborate, and develop expertise in that domain. CoPs have gained recognition as a valuable framework for knowledge sharing, professional development, and innovation in various fields and organizations.

Understanding Communities of Practice

A Community of Practice is characterized by the following key elements:

• Domain: CoPs have a shared domain of interest, which could be a specific profession, industry, skill set, or topic. This common focus serves as the glue that binds members together.
• Community: CoPs are formed by individuals who interact and collaborate regularly, fostering a sense of belonging and shared identity. Members build relationships and trust within the community.
• Practice: CoPs are centered around shared practices, which include not only the knowledge and skills related to the domain but also the collective wisdom and expertise developed through ongoing interactions.

CoPs are often described as “communities of learners” because they prioritize continuous learning and improvement as a collective endeavor.

Historical Roots of Communities of Practice

The concept of Communities of Practice has a rich history and can be traced back to several influential thinkers and movements:

1. Jean Lave and Etienne Wenger:

• In the 1990s, Jean Lave and Etienne Wenger introduced the term “Community of Practice” in their work on situated learning and the social aspects of learning. They emphasized the importance of social interaction and participation in learning.

2. Anthropology and Social Learning:

• The idea of CoPs draws on the anthropological concept of apprenticeship and the notion that learning occurs within the context of social communities.

3. Knowledge Management:

• In the field of knowledge management, CoPs emerged as a way to harness and share tacit knowledge within organizations.

4. Organizational Learning:

• CoPs gained prominence in the realm of organizational learning and knowledge sharing as organizations recognized the importance of informal learning and collaboration.

5. Technology and Online Communities:

• The advent of the internet and online collaboration tools has facilitated the formation of virtual CoPs, transcending geographical boundaries.

The Significance of Communities of Practice

Communities of Practice have become increasingly significant in various contexts for several reasons:

1. Knowledge Sharing and Transfer:

• CoPs serve as a natural platform for members to share, transfer, and co-create knowledge, both tacit and explicit.

2. Professional Development:

• CoPs contribute to the professional development of their members by providing opportunities for learning, skill development, and mentoring.

3. Innovation and Problem Solving:

• CoPs foster innovation by encouraging members to explore new ideas, experiment with solutions, and collectively address challenges.

4. Organizational Learning:

• CoPs enhance an organization’s capacity to learn and adapt to change by facilitating the flow of knowledge and best practices.

5. Networking and Social Capital:

• CoPs offer a platform for building relationships, expanding professional networks, and accessing valuable social capital.

6. Employee Engagement:

• Engagement within CoPs can lead to higher job satisfaction, as members feel a sense of belonging and purpose.

7. Cross-Functional Collaboration:

• CoPs encourage collaboration across departments, bridging silos and promoting a more holistic approach to problem-solving.

Principles and Practices of Communities of Practice

Communities of Practice are guided by a set of principles and practices that help shape their functioning and effectiveness:

1. Shared Domain:

• CoPs have a clearly defined domain of interest that unites members and provides a common focus for activities.

2. Community Building:

• Building a sense of community and trust among members is essential for the success of a CoP.

3. Participation and Contribution:

• Active participation and contributions from members are encouraged, as they are essential for the vitality of the community.

4. Learning as a Social Process:

• CoPs view learning as a social process that occurs through interactions, discussions, and knowledge sharing.

5. Encouraging Reflection:

• Members are encouraged to reflect on their experiences, share insights, and learn from their successes and failures.

6. Openness and Inclusivity:

• CoPs should be open and inclusive, welcoming members with diverse backgrounds and perspectives.

7. Supportive Leadership:

• Effective leadership within a CoP can guide discussions, facilitate knowledge sharing, and create a positive environment.

8. Continuous Improvement:

• CoPs often engage in regular assessments and evaluations to improve their processes and outcomes.

Benefits of Communities of Practice

Communities of Practice offer numerous benefits to both individuals and organizations:

1. Knowledge Sharing:

• CoPs facilitate the sharing of expertise, best practices, and tacit knowledge among members.

2. Professional Development:

• Members can enhance their skills, gain new insights, and stay updated on industry trends through CoP interactions.

3. Innovation:

• CoPs provide a fertile ground for innovation by encouraging members to explore new ideas and approaches.

4. Problem Solving:

• Members collectively address challenges and problem-solve by leveraging the diverse expertise within the community.

5. Networking:

• CoPs offer opportunities for members to expand their professional networks and build valuable connections.

6. Organizational Learning:

• Organizations benefit from the collective learning and knowledge transfer that occur within CoPs.

7. Employee Engagement:

• Engagement within CoPs contributes to higher job satisfaction and a sense of belonging among employees.

Challenges and Considerations

While Communities of Practice offer significant benefits, they also come with challenges and considerations:

1. Resource Allocation:

• CoPs may require resources such as time, facilitation, and technology support to function effectively.

2. Sustainability:

• Maintaining the engagement and momentum of a CoP over the long term can be challenging.

3. Inclusivity:

• Efforts must be made to ensure that CoPs are inclusive and that diverse voices are heard and valued.

4. Leadership and Facilitation:

• Effective leadership and facilitation are crucial for guiding CoP activities and discussions.

5. Measuring Impact:

• Assessing the impact and value generated by CoPs can be complex and may require the development of relevant metrics.

6. Balancing Formal and Informal Learning:

• CoPs should strike a balance between informal, member-driven learning and formal learning initiatives within organizations.

Future Trends in Communities of Practice

The future of Communities of Practice is influenced by emerging trends and evolving needs in the learning and knowledge sharing landscape:

1. Virtual Communities:

• The rise of remote work and digital collaboration tools will likely lead to the growth of virtual CoPs, transcending geographical boundaries.

2. AI and Knowledge Management:

• Artificial intelligence and advanced knowledge management systems may enhance the capabilities of CoPs by providing personalized recommendations and insights.

3. Hybrid Learning:

• CoPs may integrate with formal learning programs and platforms, creating hybrid learning ecosystems.

4. Global Collaboration:

• CoPs may increasingly facilitate global collaboration and the sharing of best practices across borders.

5. Measuring Impact:

• Efforts to measure the impact and ROI of CoPs may lead to the development of more sophisticated assessment methods.

6. Cross-Industry Collaboration:

• CoPs may expand their horizons by fostering collaboration between professionals from different industries to drive innovation.

Conclusion

Communities of Practice have emerged as a powerful framework for fostering learning, collaboration, and knowledge sharing in various domains and organizations. As the world continues to evolve, and as the need for continuous learning and adaptation becomes more critical, CoPs offer a dynamic and organic approach to addressing these challenges. By promoting inclusivity, expertise development, and a sense of community, CoPs play a vital role in shaping the future of learning and professional growth.

https://tinyurl.com/3sefrkwr

10 этапов построения целеустремленной компании

 

Технология развития организации на основе разработки и внедрения инструментов целевого управления от философии компании до системы KPI и оплаты по результатам работы.

Что такое целеустремленная компания? Это компания, в которой: есть видение будущего, и все сотрудники его знают, понимают и разделяют; разработана стратегия движения к этому будущему; сформулированы стратегические и тактические цели деятельности; осуществляются непрерывный учет и контроль ключевых показателей предприятия и сотрудников, оперативный анализ отклонений и принятие управленческих решений; сотрудники понимают не только свои обязанности, но и цели деятельности и делают все, что необходимо и достаточно, для их достижения; все мысли и действия людей заточены на получение результата; ответственность, эффективность, инновационность, активность, целеустремленность стали ценностями корпоративной культуры и привычкой в поведении персонала. Мечта многих руководителей. Но картинка идеальная и труднодостижимая для большинства современных компаний. Однако приблизиться к этой мечте — уже что-то, уже хорошо. Для этого можно использовать как известные, так и менее известные, инструменты и методики целевого управления, связанные в единую технологию, состоящую из десяти этапов.

Это не панацея. Гарантий нет. Но, если следовать технологии, вероятность успеха повышается. Думаю, стоит попробовать.

Этап 1. Разработка философии компании

Первый шаг — разработка философии компании. К ней обычно относят такие экзотические для многих организаций инструменты управления, как миссия, ценности и стратегическое видение. В контексте целевого управления философия важна постольку, поскольку повышает шансы на постановку не только привычных нам пассивных или реактивных, но и проактивных целей, выбираемых собственниками не вынуждено по необходимости или чьему-либо повелению, а по собственной воле, разумению и хотению. Это цели высшего уровня качества.

О миссии сказано и написано очень много. Однако до сих пор многие руководители, отдавая дань управленческой моде, считают миссию необходимым атрибутом организации. В итоге, чаще всего, мы получаем т. н. псевдомиссии как общие и расплывчатые фразы о намерениях или ценностном предложении компании. Но миссия должна выходить за пределы бизнеса! Это не цель. Это путь, процесс. Она должна показывать вклад организации в развитие отрасли, города, региона, страны, общества. Часто это сделать очень непросто. Но к счастью, это делать совсем необязательно. Тем не менее, хорошая миссия привлекает внимание клиентов, поставщиков, инвесторов, заряжает персонал, создает неповторимый образ компании… и помогает формулировать качественные цели, не сводящиеся лишь к получению прибыли, росту продаж или сокращению операционных расходов.

Вместе с тем, для выхода на проактивные цели важно выстрадать и осознать деловые ценности, ибо цели компании формируются под влиянием ее ценностей, а не наоборот. Это то, что важно для выживания и успеха предприятия. Это ключевые приоритеты — базовые, прикладные, идеалы. Так формируется корпоративная идеология. Для ее разработки часто необходимы мучительная саморефлексия, глубинная фасилитация и «хирургическое вмешательство» в коллективное бессознательное организации.

Третий источник проактивных целей — стратегическое видение или образ желаемого будущего (VISION) компании. Когда организация имеет VISION, включается метафизический механизм самоисполняющихся пророчеств или эффект Пигмалиона, ибо, как гласит известная восточная мудрость, «не мы движемся к будущему, отталкиваясь от прошлого, а будущее вытаскивает нас из прошлого и притягивает к себе». А если этот образ существует не только в голове у собственника, но и разрабатывается «всем миром» или хотя бы тиражируется по всей организации, то эффект Пигмалиона дополняется эффектом синергии, когда все сотрудники начинают подсознательно действовать, думать, стоять, сидеть, лежать в направлении одной общей цели.

Этап 2. Построение и развитие бизнес-модели

На данном этапе, исходя из VISION, «прокачиваем» бизнес-модель компании. Для этого можно использовать, например, известный шаблон Александра Остервальдера. При этом важно построить не только актуальную текущую бизнес-модель («как есть»), но и целевую бизнес-модель («как надо»), включающую стратегические и/или тактические изменения в ближайшие 1-3-5 лет. Безусловно, сам шаблон бизнес-модели ни в коей мере не является инструментом планирования. Он служит лишь удобным средством для визуализации и фиксации стратегических или тактических решений, принятых руководителями с помощью интуиции, опыта, личных ценностей (что чаще всего и происходит на практике) или на основе известных методик (например, старого доброго SWOT-анализа и др.).

Таким образом, в итоге мы должны получить целевую бизнес-модель компании как основу для совершенствования ее структуры и формулирования стратегических целей с последующим выходом на «функционал» и систему KPI сотрудников.

Этап 3. Оптимизация организационной структуры

Цель и смысл данного этапа — привести структуру в соответствие с целевой бизнес-моделью предприятия. Здесь под организационной структурой будем понимать объединение трех видов структур: процессной, административной, финансовой. Это как бы три проекции организации или три взгляда на ее внутреннее устройство.

Зачем нам это нужно, и какое отношение организационная структура имеет к управлению по целям? Самое непосредственное. Во-первых, это необходимо для обустройства и наведения порядка в самой организации и перехода от «ручного» управления к основам регулярного менеджмента. А, во-вторых, в рамках целевого управления организационная структура создает прочную основу для каскадирования целей и разработки системы KPI. Если этого не сделать, то мы будем строить новый дом на старом и, вероятно, уже обветшалом фундаменте, так как у многих организаций административная структура в виде «квадратиков и стрелочек», если и прописана, то ничем не обоснована, а процессная и финансовая структуры отсутствуют вообще. Если очень кратко, это делается в следующей последовательности.

На основе бизнес-модели формируется процессная структура как множество бизнес-процессов верхнего уровня, разделенных на соответствующие группы и подгруппы. При этом процессы как бы вытягиваются из целевой бизнес-модели и поддерживают ее. Если у компании множественная бизнес-модель, то процессная структура строится по каждой стратегической области бизнеса (СОБ) организации.

Далее на основе процессной формируется административная структура, закрепляющая ответственность должностей и подразделений за выполнение рабочих процессов и проектов. Как известно, существует большое разнообразие административных структур (от линейных до виртуальных) и подходов к их построению. Сложность в том, что для выбора структуры нет какого-то четкого алгоритма. Это в большей степени искусство, чем наука. На практике, действуя рационально, часто приходится учитывать много иррациональных факторов: борьбу за власть и влияние, симпатии и антипатии, ценности и психотипы…

Затем на основе административной формируется финансовая структура как иерархия центров финансовой ответственности (ЦФО) и учета, закрепляющих ответственность руководителей (а иногда и сотрудников) за финансовые результаты компании. Это необходимо для построения системы управленческого учета и в дальнейшем помогает избежать произвола и ошибок при разработке финансовых KPI персонала.

Первые три этапа в нашей «дорожной карте» — подготовительные. Нельзя делать маникюр на грязных руках. Надо создать основу. В нашем случае — для перехода от директивного и процессного к целевому управлению организацией.

Этап 4. Постановка стратегических целей и задач

Идея сбалансированности целей с учетом интересов всех заинтересованных сторон (собственников, покупателей, поставщиков, партнеров, инвесторов, органов власти, персонала) реализована в методике сбалансированной системы показателей (BSC) Дэйвида Нортона и Роберта Каплана, ставшей уже (если не де-юре, то де-факто) неофициальным стандартом для формулирования стратегических целей организаций. Согласно методике BSC имеем четыре направления (или перспективы) для формулирования целей и показателей: финансы (только для бизнеса!), рынок (не только клиенты!), процессы (не только внутренние!), развитие (не только персонал!). И это не догма. Так, в отдельные перспективы можно выделять такие группы целей, как «Персонал», «Экология», «Социальная ответственность» и др., а также «Внешнюю среду» организации. А разработка BSC для государственных и некоммерческих организаций — это, вообще, отдельная песня.

В классическом варианте при использовании BSC процедура целеполагания включает четыре шага.

Вначале прописываем собственно стратегические цели на 1-3-5 лет вперед. Цели формулируются качественно, на словах, пока без оцифровки и привязки к конкретным срокам. В таком виде цели задают не планируемый результат, а намерения или направления движения. При этом цели не придумываются на мозговых штурмах, а методично, как и процессы, «вытягиваются» из целевой бизнес-модели. В итоге можем получить 15-20-25 формулировок. Затем связываем цели логикой причинно-следственных отношений и формируем стратегическую карту. Построение карты необходимо для балансировки системы целей и выявления всех критических факторов успеха. В итоге первоначальный список целей может как расшириться, так и сократиться. Далее для каждой цели подбираем несколько соответствующих показателей (обычно 2-3) и затем определяем набор стратегических показателей, как панель управления организацией. К ним могут относиться и обычные показатели, рассчитываемые по заданным формулам или процедурам, и сложные аналитические показатели (по терминологии Марка Грэма Брауна). И, наконец, на основе выбранных показателей формулируем стратегические задачи, как планируемые результаты деятельности компании на 1-2-3 года вперед, организуем их учет и контроль, отслеживаем динамику, анализируем «факт/план», принимаем решения и ведем организацию в направлении ее целей.

Этап 5. Формирование портфеля проектов и поручений

Для развития компании формируем портфель стратегических проектов и программ, рассчитанных на долгосрочную перспективу, тактических проектов (обычно в пределах 1 года) и оперативных проектов (или поручений). Портфель проектов разрабатываем на основе целевой бизнес-модели и стратегической карты предприятия. На данном этапе вступает в свои права технология проектного управления с ее широким арсеналом разнообразных методик и инструментов (от сетевых графиков до agile-методов).

Этап 6. Определение служебных функций

Ответственность сотрудников за достижение целей компании закрепляем с помощью продуктного метода определения служебных функций, подробно описанного в книгах Аркадия Пригожина. Воспользуюсь его определением. Служебная функция — это общефирменная цель, переведенная на уровень подразделения или работника. Иначе говоря, это его вклад в достижение целей организации. В соответствии с продуктным методом служебная функция сотрудника обозначает не действие, а желаемый результат действия, т. е. «продукт», в котором заинтересованы его внутренние клиенты. Причем, функции должны учитывать не только особенности должности, но и личности, дабы не загонять в прокрустово ложе таланты и способности людей.

С помощью служебных функций стратегические цели передаются на уровень топ-менеджеров, руководителей подразделений и сотрудников. При этом функции сотрудников как бы «вытягиваются» из функций их непосредственных руководителей и обеспечивают их выполнение. В итоге для любой должности мы получаем т. н. вертикальные функции. Практически для этого удобно использовать метод 5D-матриц. Его суть заключается в том, что руководители определяют функции сотрудников пятью способами:

• оставляет выполнение функции исключительно за собой (Do);
• делегирует функцию одному из подчиненных (Delegate);
• тиражирует функцию нескольким подчиненным (Duplicate);
• разделяет функцию на однотипные подфункции (Divide);
• декомпозирует функцию на уникальные подфункции (Decompose).

Используя данный метод, можно идти не только «сверху вниз» — от целей, но и «снизу вверх» — от процессов, поскольку функции сотрудника должны быть согласованы с целями рабочих процессов. Если возникает несоответствие, то могут быть добавлены новые функции или созданы новые процессы.

Для определения «горизонтальных» функций сотрудника необходимо учесть и согласовать требования его внутренних клиентов. С этой целью для каждой должности формируем диаграмму внутренних клиентов и проводим внутрифирменные переговоры. В результате переговоров получаем дополнительные функции, не выявленные ранее с помощью 5D-матриц. И, наконец, для всех должностей можем построить функциональные карты, содержащие формулировки логически связанных служебных функций, распределенных (по аналогии с картой целей) по четырем перспективам: финансы, рынок, процессы, развитие.

Этап 7. Проектирование системы KPI

Система KPI — верхушка айсберга в технологии целевого управления организацией. К ней еще надо подобраться. Но, если мы построили фундамент в виде стратегических целей и служебных функций, то можем приступить и к разработке ключевых показателей деятельности. Раньше нельзя. Вернее, можно, но тогда мы рискуем получить систему показателей в лучшем случае неработающую, а в худшем — работающую криво и уводящую организацию от достижения ее целей.

Разработка системы (именно системы, а не просто набора) KPI включает несколько шагов. На первом шаге на основе служебных функций формируем библиотеки показателей деятельности для каждой должности в организации. На втором шаге, отталкиваясь от стратегических показателей, разрабатываем собственно систему KPI. Для этого можно использовать процедуру каскадирования и фильтрации показателей по методике 5D-матриц. При этом все KPI сотрудников должны быть согласованы с показателями руководителей и поддерживать их выполнение. На третьем шаге разрабатываем паспорта показателей, содержащих название показателей, их описание, расчетные формулы, процедуры оценивания, примеры расчетов, ответственных за учет и другую информацию. На четвертом — формируем соглашения о целях. При этом для каждого показателя задаем его вес, выставляем базовый, нормативный и целевой уровни, рассчитываем по факту индексы KPI и общий рейтинг эффективности сотрудника. Учимся их использовать и организуем регулярный процесс постановки и согласования задач и непрерывный контроль их выполнения в течение и по итогам каждого месяца или квартала. Система KPI не работает «на автомате»! Только при живом участии руководителей и их активном взаимодействии с сотрудниками. На пятом шаге разрабатываем и оформляем методику оценки персонала на основе KPI в виде официального, понятного и доступного документа.

Этап 8. Разработка методики оплаты по результатам

Система KPI и оплата по результатам — это две разные истории. Система KPI является частью «операционной системы», управляющей работой компании, а оплата по результатам — лишь одно из ее «приложений». И устанавливать это приложение совсем необязательно. Тем не менее, при желании или необходимости, это сделать можно, но главное — соблюдать высокую точность установки и настройки на особенности компании.

Практически при определении оплаты по результатам (или в российской терминологии премии) сотрудников возможны три подхода:

• Руководитель определяет размер премии «на глазок», исходя из собственных оценок подчиненного и представлений о том, что такое хорошо и что такое плохо.
• Премия рассчитывается по определенным KPI и обсуждению не подлежит.
• Премия рассчитывается по определенным KPI, но окончательное решение о размере премии принимает руководитель, учитывая мнение сотрудника и любые неформальные факторы, повлиявшие на его результаты.

Очевидно, что третий вариант представляется более обоснованным, чем первый, и — более мягким и человечным, чем второй. Тем не менее, если мы вычисляем премию на основе KPI, необходимо выбрать некую расчетную формулу или алгоритм, переводящий значения показателей в денежные знаки. Для этого на практике используются самые разнообразные методики. Размер статьи не позволяет описать их даже кратко.

Этап 9. Опытная эксплуатация и внедрение

Прежде, чем внедрить технологию, необходимо запустить пилотный проект, т. е. провести ее опытную эксплуатацию. Она может занимать от нескольких месяцев до 1-2 лет в зависимости от размера предприятия и масштаба проекта. В ходе опытной эксплуатации необходимо провести «отладку» системы, выявить и устранить ошибки, обучить сотрудников, в общем, научиться пользоваться технологией в «полевых» условиях и только после этого официально внедрить в повседневную жизнь организации.

Этап 10. Развитие технологии

Однако внедрение технологии — уже начало ее развития. Нет ничего, что нельзя улучшить. Все может (и должно) постоянно изменяться и совершенствоваться: философия, бизнес-модель, структура, цели, проекты, функции, KPI, оплата по результатам. Это непрерывный и нелинейный процесс.

Заключение

Внедрение технологии целевого управления — не радостное событие, а сложный и обычно длительный проект, требующий воли и терпения. «Тот, кто хочет все и сразу, получает ничего и постепенно». Но представленная «дорожная карта» — не канон, а скорее — ориентир. Причем, подключиться к ней можно на любом этапе.

В российском менеджменте чаще всего применяются иные методы и принципы управления:

• «Философия компании? Дело надо делать, а не философствовать».
• «Бизнес-модель? Зачем? Мы и так понимаем, чем занимаемся, и кто наши покупатели, а кто — поставщики».
• «Рабочие процессы? Идут своим чередом. Даже есть какие-то регламенты».
• «Оргструктура? Где-то нарисована. Да и без нее все знают своих начальников в лицо».
• «Центры финансовой ответственности? Не усложняйте. Всем и так известно, кто у нас зарабатывает, а кто тратит».
• «Стратегические цели? Деньги зарабатывать! И для этого все средства хороши».
• «Служебные функции? Спросите в отделе кадров. Да и так все понятно».
• «KPI? Что за зверь такой? Планы надо выполнять, вот и все KPI».
• «Премия? Все очень просто. Работаешь хорошо — получаешь. Работаешь плохо — не получаешь».

И это не ирония. Как ни странно, но подобный анти-менеджмент тоже неплохо работает и имеет право на существование. За счет чего? За счет знаний и опыта, здравомыслия и ответственности, сверхусилий и самоотдачи, железной дисциплины и твердой руки, неформальных отношений и договоренностей… Рассмотренные в статье технология и инструменты целевого управления их ни в коей мере не отменяют и не заменяют, а всего лишь усиливают и дополняют.

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