Complexity – the view from the Chair

 

Those of us who have had the privilege of chairing meetings know that the view from that seat is entirely different from that of participants.

“Like playing multi-dimensional chess” is the analogy sometimes used, as it evokes the multi-focal nature of effective chairing practice.

The chair’s role inviting participants to speak and vote on motions before the meeting is only the most visible aspect of their extraordinarily complex and subtle role.

Multi-focal attention

The header image above, and the more detailed version below, outline just some of the matters the chair must pay attention to, almost simultaneously, throughout the meeting. Depending on the industry concerned, and the type of organisation, quite different additional considerations may also be involved beyond the complex array illustrated. For example, communication or liaison with key stakeholders may also require consideration.

Meeting dynamics (especially if remote participants are involved), interpersonal relations, political perspectives, physical and psychological states of participants, cultural and knowledge differences, and meeting logistics, all require consideration, alongside facilitation of decision making, monitoring operational performance. and strategic planning activities covered in the agenda.

Having served as a board secretary or executive officer in a wide range of settings for over 30 years in education and health organisations, in both the public and private sectors. I have had opportunity to witness scores of chairpersons, and to form some views about what good chairing looks like.

Role models

My three best ‘role model’ chairs shared some common traits (perhaps reflecting my biases*), including:

• A great sense of time, with considerable thought given to the time budget before the meeting so that priority items received the detailed attention they deserved. They also started and finished on time, and rarely needed to seek the permission of the meeting to extend deliberations.
• The capacity to engage everyone in the meeting, partly as a way of ensuring that a good cross section of views was aired before a vote was taken, but also to keep people on their toes, because they might be called upon to offer a view on any matter on the agenda. This also tended to ensure that directors were more likely to have read their agenda pack beforehand, rather than being caught out under- or unprepared. (Regrettably I witnessed quite a few occasions over the years when we still used paper agenda packs, of directors opening their pack for the first time as they set up for the start of the meeting, intending to ‘wing it’ if they could get away with it).
• The ability to sum up the main points in the discussion before putting the matter to a vote. Apart from assisting directors to confirm their ‘on-balance’ view as a basis for voting, minute secretaries loved this quality, as they came to recognise that it was rarely necessary to write long-winded notes during a debate. Capturing the summing up before the motion was put was usually sufficient.
  (* They naturally addressed all of the other requirements of the role, but were particularly strong on these three qualities).

Chair training recommended

The skills required of all directors are quite extensive, and it can take some time and discipline for a director to become proficient or expert in the role. Given the additional complexity of the chair’s role, it is preferable in my view that candidates for chair are drawn from those with a sound grasp of the ‘ordinary’ director roles and responsibilities. Candidates for the role should not undertake it without understanding the requirements, and perhaps doing some preparatory training or professional development.

https://cutt.ly/o8sjHnI

Market Failure. Part 1.

 Definition of Market Failure – This occurs when there is an inefficient allocation of resources in a free market. Market failure can occur due to a variety of reasons, such as monopoly (higher prices and less output), negative externalities (over-consumed and costs to third party) and public goods (usually not provided in a free market)

Types of market failure

1. Positive externalities – Goods/services which give benefit to a third party, e.g. less congestion from cycling.
2. Negative externalities – Goods/services which impose a cost on a third party, e.g. cancer from passive smoking.
3. Merit goods – People underestimate the benefit of good, e.g. education. It may also have positive externalities
4. Demerit goods – People underestimate the costs of a good, e.g. smoking. It may also have negative externalities.
5. Public Goods – Goods which are non-rival and non-excludable – e.g. police, national defence. Public goods are often not provided in a free market.
6. Monopoly Power – when a firm controls the market (with high market share) and can set higher prices.
7. Inequality – unfair distribution of resources in free market, e.g. some experiencing poverty and homelessness
8. Factor Immobility – E.g. geographical / occupational immobility. For example, when there are pockets of high unemployment, but it is difficult for the unemployed to move and get a job.
9. Agriculture – Agriculture is often subject to market failure – due to volatile prices, fluctuating weather and externalities.
10. Information failure – where there is a lack of information to make an informed choice.
11. Principal-agent problem – Two agents with different objectives and information asymmetries. For example, adverse selection where a buyer has less information than the seller.
12. Moral hazard. When individuals have incentive to change their behaviour when others take the risk. For example, when banks are insured by the government, bankers take risky decisions which can cause bank losses.
13. Macroeconomic instability – When an economy enters into prolonged recession and high unemployment – or inflationary boom which is unstable.

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A way to remember several types of market failure

Key Terms in Market Failure

• Externalities:  These occur when a third party is affected by the decisions and actions of others.
• Social benefit:  the total benefit to society =
  Private Marginal Benefit (PMB) + External Marginal  Benefit (XMB)
• Social Cost: is the total cost to society =
  Private Marginal Cost (PMC) + External Marginal Cost (XMC
• Social Efficiency: This occurs when resources are utilised in the most efficient way. This will occur at an output where social marginal cost (SMC) = Social Marginal Benefit. (SMB)

Overcoming Market Failure

Diagram shows output in free-market equilibrium and how a tax can shift output to socially efficient level

• Tax on Negative Externalities – e.g. Petrol tax
• Carbon Tax e.g. tax on CO2 emissions
• Subsidy on positive externalities – why the government may subsidies public transport
• Laws and regulations – Simple and effective ways to regulate demerit goods, like a ban on smoking advertising.
• Buffer stocks – aim to stabilise prices
• Government failure – why government intervention may not always improve the situation

Market failure and behavioural economics

Behavioural economics examines how individuals often act in a non-rational manner – contrary to the expectation of conventional economic models. These types of ‘irrational behaviour’ can lead to a type of market failure where people make poor choices. For example.

• Irrational exuberance – people getting carried away by good news leading to boom and bust.

Positive Externalities

Definition of Positive Externality: This occurs when the consumption or production of a good causes a benefit to a third party. For example:

• When you consume education you get a private benefit. But there are also benefits to the rest of society. E.g you are able to educate other people and therefore they benefit as a result of your education. (positive consumption externality)
• A farmer who grows apple trees provides a benefit to a beekeeper. The beekeeper gets a good source of nectar to help make more honey. (positive production externality)
• If you walk to work, it will reduce congestion and pollution; this will benefit everyone else in the city.

Social Benefit

• With positive externalities, the benefit to society is greater than your personal benefit.
• Therefore with a positive externality the Social Benefit > Private Benefit
• Remember Social Benefit = private benefit + external benefit.

Diagram of Positive Externality (consumption)

• In this case, the social marginal benefit of consumption is greater than the private marginal benefit. For example, if you take a train, it reduces congestion for other travellers.
• In a free market, consumption will be at Q1 because demand = supply (private benefit = private cost )
• However, this is socially inefficient because at Q1, social marginal cost < social marginal benefit. Therefore there is under-consumption of the positive externality.
• Social efficiency would occur at Q2 where social cost = social benefit

For example, in a free market without government intervention, there would be an under-consumption of education and public transport.

Examples of positive externalities (consumption)

• Good architecture. Choosing a beautiful design for a building will give benefits to everybody in society.
• Buying flowers for front garden gives benefits to others who walk past
• Consuming a healthy diet ultimately will benefit others in society because less health care costs, higher productivity
• Education or learning new skills. With better education, you are more productive and can gain more skills. But, also the rest of society benefits from your new skills.

Positive externality (production)

• This occurs when a third party benefits from the production of a good. For example, building a train station may provide shelter for the homeless when it is raining.
• If a company develops new technology, such as a database programme, this new technology can be implemented by other firms who will gain a similar boost to productivity.
• Tim Berners Lee who developed the World Wide Web, made it freely available, creating a very large positive externality.

Diagram of positive externality in production

• Because there are positive externalities in production, the social marginal cost of production is less than the private marginal cost of production.
• In a free market, a firm will ignore benefits to third parties and will produce at Q1 (free market outcome)
• However, the socially efficient level will be at Q2 (where social marginal cost = social marginal benefit)

More examples of positive externalities

• Getting a vaccination provides a benefit to other people in society because you do not spread infectious diseases.
• A decision to stop smoking causes benefits to other people in society who longer suffer passive smoking.
• Switching from conventional farming to organic farming helps the environment as there are fewer chemicals in the environment.
• Picking up litter makes the environment nicer for everyone.

Dealing with positive externalities

Positive externalities lead to under-consumption and market failure. Government policies to increase demand for goods with positive externalities include

1. Rules and regulations – minimum school leaving age
2. Increasing supply – the government building of council housing to increase the stock of good quality housing.
3. Subsidy to reduce price and encourage consumption, e.g. government subsidy for rural train services.

Diagram to show the effect of subsidy on good with positive externalities

A subsidy of P0-P2 shifts supply curve to the right (S2) and the new quantity demand will be Q2 (where SMB=SMC)

In this case, the subsidy has overcome the market failure. Though government intervention itself could be subject to government failure.

Subsidies for positive externalities

Subsidies involve the government paying part of the cost to the firm; this reduces the price of the good and should encourage more consumption. A subsidy shifts the supply curve to the right and can be justified for goods which offer benefits to the rest of society.

What is the justification for subsidising goods with positive externalities?

In a free market, people ignore the positive externalities of consumption, e.g. when cycling to work, you don’t consider the reduction in pollution your decision creates. In a free market, there is under-consumption of goods with positive externalities because people usually ignore the ‘external benefits’ their decisions make.

Examples of goods with positive externalities in societies

• Health care – free universal health care can ensure everyone gets vaccinated; this prevents the spread of infectious disease, which benefits everyone. In other words, you have a personal benefit from other people being healthy.
• Collecting refuse and litter – If litter is picked up, it benefits everyone else who can enjoy a more beautiful environment. It also helps improve public health.
• Education. If the long-term structurally unemployed workers gain useful training and education, it enables them to find work. This has benefits for other people in society –  The government receives more tax revenue and pays less unemployment benefit. There is also a less tangible benefit of a more cohesive society.

Diagram showing market failure when there is a positive externality

• The free market equilibrium is at Q1. because S=D. People maximise their welfare where private marginal benefit = private marginal cost.
• But, social efficiency occurs at Q2 (where SMB = SMC), therefore, at the free market equilibrium, the social marginal benefit is greater than the social marginal cost. Society would benefit from increasing output until Q2.
• To increase consumption and production, the government can offer a subsidy to reduce the price and increase quantity.

Diagram of subsidy on positive externality

• Subsidy = P0-P2
• The supply curve shifts to S2 and price falls from P1 to P2
• People will now consume more; the quantity increases from Q1 to Q2.
• The output (Q2) is social efficient: because here Social marginal cost (SMC) = Social marginal benefit (SMB)

Advantages of subsidies

• Enables greater social efficiency. Consumers end up paying the socially efficient price which includes the external benefit.
• If you subsidise public transport, it will encourage people to drive less, and reduce their negative externalities. In the long term, subsidies for a good will help change preferences. It will encourage firms to develop more products with positive externalities.

Potential problems of subsidies

• The cost will have to be met through taxation. Some taxation, e.g. income tax, may reduce incentives to work. Though the most efficient way to raise revenue for subsidising positive externalities would be to tax goods with negative externalities, e.g. tax cars driving in city centres (congestion charge) and use the money to pay for public transport.
• Difficult to estimate the extent of the positive externality. Therefore the government may have poor information about the service and how much to subsidise.
• There is a danger that government subsidies may encourage firms to be inefficient and they come to rely on subsidy rather than improve efficiency. (see: government failure)
• The effect depends on the elasticity of demand

• If demand is price elastic, a subsidy leads to large increase in demand
• If demand is price inelastic, a subsidy is relatively ineffective in increasing demand.

Which diagram to draw?

Either (production or consumption externality) is acceptable to show the principle of positive externalities. Generally, I advise using the positive externalities of consumption. To simply economics for some students (who often get confused by these diagrams), I will only teach one positive externality diagram. (consumption)

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Extra How to define externalities?

A reader asks the question if a farmer switches from conventional to organic farming is this really a positive externality?

“Conventional and organic farming both have negative externalities. One has less than the other, but switching doesn’t mean a positive externality, it just means a reduction or even mitigation of a negative externality. In the same way driving an electric car is not a positive externality.”

Thanks for note. It is an interesting point. You are correct if you are defining externalities strictly in terms of a positive consumption externality. In this case, the best example would be something like deciding to ‘consume education’ – which gives clear positive externality.

However I feel there is a broader definition of positive externality – that a decision by an individual has a benefit to others.

For example, a farmer may switch to organic for personal reasons to make more profit. But, I think it is reasonable to say that this decision has positive externalities to the rest of society. Due to their decision, there are a lower quantity of chemicals in the environment and less chemicals in food. The benefit of the switch to organic is not just limited to the farmer himself. So really, it is the decision to switch which has a positive externality.

Negative Externalities

• Negative externalities occur when the consumption or production of a good causes a harmful effect to a third party.

Examples of negative externalities

• Loud music. If you play loud music at night, your neighbour may not be able to sleep.
• Pollution. If you produce chemicals and cause pollution as a side effect, then local fishermen will not be able to catch fish. This loss of income will be the negative externality.
• Congestion. If you drive a car, it creates air pollution and contributes to congestion. These are both external costs imposed on other people who live in the city.
• Building a new road. If you build a new road, the external cost is the loss of a beautiful landscape which people can no longer enjoy.

The externalities of driving a car to work

• The personal cost of driving are buying car, petrol, your time
• The negative externalities are – pollution to other people, possible accident to other other people, and time other people sit in traffic jams

Social cost

• Social cost is the total cost to society; it includes both private and external costs.
• With a negative externality the Social Cost > Private Cost

Negative production  externality

• When producing a good causes a harmful effect to a third party. Therefore the social cost is greater than the private cost.

Examples of negative production externalities

• Burning coal for energy creates pollution.
• Producing conventional vegetables with pesticides causes carcinogens to get into the environment.
• Producing beef in South America involves cutting down Amazon rainforest, which has an impact on global climate and local environment

• Because of the external costs the social marginal cost is greater than the private marginal cost.
• In a free market, producers ignore the external costs to others. Therefore output will be at Q1 (where Demand = Supply).
• This is socially inefficient because at Q1 – SMC> SMB
• Social efficiency occurs at Q2 where Social marginal cost = Social marginal benefit

The red triangle is the area of deadweight welfare loss. It indicates the area of overconsumption (where SMC is greater than PMC)

Negative externality of consumption

This occurs when consuming a good causes a harmful effect to a third party. In this case, the social benefit is less than the private benefit.

Examples of negative externalities of consumption

• Consuming alcohol leads to an increase in drunkenness, increased risk of car accidents and social disorder.
• Consuming loud music late at night keeps your neighbours awake.
• Consuming cigarettes causes passive smoking to others in the vacinity.

Diagram of negative externality in consumption

• In a free market, we get Q1 output. But at this output, the social marginal cost is greater than the social marginal benefit.
• The red triangle is the area of dead-weight welfare loss.
• Social efficiency occurs at a lower output (Q2) – where social marginal benefit = social marginal cost.

Implications of negative externalities

If goods or services have negative externalities, then we will get market failure. This is because individuals fail to take into account the costs to other people.

To achieve a more socially efficient outcome, the government could try to tax the good with negative externalities. This means that consumers pay close to the full social cost.

Economists on negative externalities

Arthur Pigou 1920 introduced the concept of externalities in The Economics of Welfare. Pigou used the example of alcohol having external costs, such as creating more demand for police and health care.

In 1975 William Baumol and W. Oates provided a comprehensive review of the literature on externalities in Theory of Environmental Policy. In particular, they applied economic concepts of externalities to the emerging issue of environmental costs. For example, in 1975, they mentioned some of the environmental costs which were considered to be pressing.

a. Disposal of toxic wastes,

b. Sulfur dioxide, particulates, and other contaminants of the atmosphere,

c. Various degradable and nondegradable wastes that pollute the world’s waterways,

d. Pesticides, which, through various routes, become imbedded in food products,

e. Deterioration of neighborhoods into slums,

f. Congestion along urban highways, g. High noise levels in metropolitan areas

 

Merit and Demerit Goods

Definition of Merit Good

A merit good has two characteristics:

1. People do not realise the true personal benefit. For example, people underestimate the benefit of education or getting a vaccination.
2. Usually, these goods also have a positive externality.

Therefore in a free market, there will be under consumption of merit goods.

Examples of Merit Goods

• Health Care – people underestimate the benefits of getting a vaccination. If people do get a vaccination, then there will be a personal benefit in protecting against diseases. Also, there will be external benefits to the rest of society because it will help reduce the prevalence of disease in the rest of society.
• Museums – the educational benefit of museums may be unappreciated.
• Eating fruit and vegetables – A diet of raw fruit gives health benefits to the consumers but we may prefer unhealthy food.
• Education – People may undervalue the benefits of studying, and decide to leave school early or not get good grades.

Demerit Good

A demerit good has two characteristics:

1. A good which harms the consumer. For example, people don’t realise or ignore the costs of doing something e.g. smoking, drugs.
2. Usually, these goods also have negative externalities. If you smoke you harm yourself, but also the smoke negatively affects other people.

Therefore in a free market, there will be overconsumption of these goods.

Examples of Demerit Goods include:

• Smoking – People underestimate health costs or risks of getting addicted.
• Drinking – Health costs to drinkers. Costs to society include more expenditure on health care and policing.
• Taking drugs – Health costs to drug users – people underestimate risks of getting addicted. External costs of more crime.
• Driking sugary softdrinks – which damage teeth and cause obesity.

Value judgement on merit goods

Merit and demerit goods involve making a value judgement that something is good or bad for you. Classification is not always straightforward. For example:

Cannabis

• Cannabis is widely considered a demerit good – it contributes to lung cancer and can lead to psychological problems, such as paranoia.
• However, supporters of cannabis might argue cannabis is a harmless drug which can help people deal with physical pain and enjoy life more.

Contraception

• Supporters of family planning may argue contraception is a merit good because contraception can help prevent the personal costs of unwanted pregnancy.
• However, the Catholic church views contraception as a sin and may argue it is actually a demerit good because contraception encourages sexual promiscuity and undermines family values.

Demerit good definition

A demerit good is defined as a good which can have a negative impact on the consumer – but these damaging effects may be unknown or ignored by the consumer. Demerit goods also usually have negative externalities – where consumption causes a harmful effect on a third party.

Examples of demerit goods

• Alcohol
• Cigarettes
• Drugs
• Junk food
• Gambling

The classification of demerit goods is a normative judgement. In defining demerit goods, we may assume that people are irrational and make poor choices – often consuming goods which are harmful, degrading or damaging in the long-term. This may be due to poor information or poor decision making. In other words, people may underestimate the private costs and over-estimate the private benefits.

Demerit goods have these two characteristics:

1. Harmful, unhealthy to the individual consumer.
2. Also, they usually have negative externalities. (Costs imposed on third parties)

Why alcohol is considered a demerit good

• Consuming alcohol can cause personal health problems, e.g. long-term liver problems or hangover the next morning. But, individuals may ignore these costs or think they don’t apply to them.
• Consuming alcohol can also cause costs to other people (external costs), such as increased levels of crime and the cost of treating disease.

Good with negative externality in consumption

With a good like alcohol, you could say it only becomes a demerit good when consumed in excess. e.g. one unit a day is unlikely to cause either much personal damage or negative externality. But, when consumed in excess, the personal and external costs can be very high.

The distinction between demerit goods and negative externalities

A good with negative externalities (e.g. driving a car) isn’t necessarily a demerit good. Driving a car causes pollution (negative costs to other people). But, we don’t usually assume that driving a car is bad for you. Therefore it would not be classed as a demerit good, just a negative externality.

Uncertain classification of demerit goods

For some goods, it is not clear whether it is a demerit good or not.

For example to some people, contraception would be considered a demerit good (contraception a sin according to the Catholic church).

However, to others, contraception may be considered beneficial (contraception helps prevent the spread of STD) and therefore a merit good.

Dealing with demerit goods

To reduce demand for demerit goods, the government may:

• Place a tax on the good, e.g. tobacco tax
• Place regulations on the consumption, e.g. legal minimum age of 18.

Prohibition of alcohol

In the early Twentieth Century, the US introduced prohibition – banning the sale of alcohol. The logic for banning alcohol was that it was a demerit good. The economist, Irving Fisher, supported prohibition because consumers often made a mistake in fulfilling desires rather than maximising satisfaction.

“Today I would like to see a study, partly economic and partly psychological, showing how the human animal following his desires often misses satisfactions instead of attaining them. The star example is narcotics.”

(Quoted in I. N. Fisher 1956, 339)

Public Good

Definition of Public Good

A public good has two characteristics:

1. Non-rivalry: This means that when a good is consumed, it doesn’t reduce the amount available for others.
   – E.g. benefiting from a street light doesn’t reduce the light available for others but eating an apple would.
2. Non-excludability: This occurs when it is not possible to provide a good without it being possible for others to enjoy. For example, if you erect a dam to stop flooding – you protect everyone in the area (whether they contributed to flooding defences or not.

A public good is often (though not always) under-provided in a free market because its characteristics of non-rivalry and non-excludability mean there is an incentive not to pay. In a free market, firms may not provide the good as they have difficulty charging people for their use.

Free rider problem

The problem with public goods is that they have a free-rider problem. This means that it is not possible to prevent anyone from enjoying a good, once it has been provided. Therefore there is no incentive for people to pay for the good because they can consume it without paying for it.

• However, this will lead to there being no good being provided.
• Therefore there will be social inefficiency.
• Therefore there will be a need for the govt to provide it directly out of general taxation.

Examples of Public Goods

Both a public bridge and street lighting exhibit characteristics of a public good.

• National defence. If you protect the country from invasion, it benefits everyone in the country.
• Street lighting. If you provide light at night, you can’t stop anyone consuming the good. Walking under a street light doesn’t reduce the amount of light for others.
• Police service. If you provide law and order, everyone in the community will benefit from improved security and reduced crime.
• Flood defences – Protecting the coastline against flooding provides benefits for the whole community.
• The internet. Once websites are provided, everyone can see the website for free, without reducing the amount available to others. (assuming an individual can access for free, which is not always the case)

Quasi-Public Goods

These are goods which have an element of non-excludability and non-rivalry. Roads are a good example. Once provided most people can use them, for example, those who have a driving licence. However, when you use a road, the amount others can benefit is reduced to some extent, because there will be increased congestion.

Market provision of public goods

Although classical economic theory suggests public goods will not be provided by a free market, there are cases when groups of individuals can come together to voluntarily provide public goods.

Behavioural economics suggests that individuals can have motivations other than just money. People may volunteer to contribute to local flood defences out of a sense of civic pride, peer pressure or genuine altruism. Therefore, in the real world, enough people may contribute to paying for a public good, even if – from a narrow self-interest point of view – it may be rational to avoid paying.

Examples of market provision of public goods include:

• Local communities providing private policing
• Local communities raising money to pay for a local school, new garden or new statue.

Difference between public spending and public goods

One possible area of confusion. We talk about public spending. This is spending done by the government. E.g. UK public spending

However, not all government (public) spending is on ‘public goods’, e.g. the government will also spend on other goods and services, .e.g. – merit goods, like education and healthcare.

(To be continued)

Как принимать лучшие решения с помощью метода тетралеммы

 

Юлия Егорова

Что такое тетралемма? И как этот метод помогает принимать решения в личной жизни, карьере и бизнесе?

Любой руководитель ежедневно, и даже несколько раз в день, сталкивается с необходимостью принимать различные решения. Не всегда вопросы решаются быстро, иногда это довольно непростой выбор, так как чаще всего для этого используются только два варианта ответа – «да» или «нет», «за» или «против», первое или второе, нравится или не нравится.

Дилемма – это традиционный способ мышления, принятый на Западе, в нашей культуре. Мы вырастаем с данной стратегией принятия решений – родители нас ей обучают, за годы жизни она укрепляется, и мы даже порой не можем размышлять более гибко и масштабно, привыкнув использовать только две стороны медали. Однако, как показывает практика, сделать логичный выбор, исходя только из двух положений, бывает очень затруднительно, особенно, если дело касается сложных бизнес-процессов. 

Есть ли вариант получше?

Когда мы ставим себя в условия выбора только из двух противоположных вариантов, особенно если оба из них не совсем подходят для решения нашей основной задачи (иначе выбора бы не стояло), то входим в стрессовое состояние, потому что дилемма – это выбор, когда его нет. Приходится идти на компромисс, но не выбирать.

Такая ограниченность может навредить вне зависимости от того, в контексте чего принимается решение – в вашем деле, в семье или в личной жизни. Кроме того, когда ответа только два, то возрастает вероятность конфликта между включенными в процесс сторонами и даже манипуляций, когда участники соглашаются на предложенный вариант только при организации для них каких-то особых условий.

Несколько раз за последние десятилетие мне и партнерам предлагали продать наш бизнес. Если цена была интересной, то обычно мы сталкивались с дилеммой – продавать и начать что-то новое (идеи всегда были) или не продавать и продолжить дело. Оба варианта, скажем так, несли определенные риски, возникали споры, в некоторых случаях такие сильные, что партнеры грозились выйти из бизнеса, тем самым подорвав его. Стресс был у всех.

Думаю, подобная ситуация возникала у многих. Было понятно, что схема из двух вариантов – это тупик, который приводит к развалу. Требовался новый подход, которым стала логическая модель из четырех частей – тетралемма, предложенная ранее буддийским философом Нагарджуной, а также древнегреческими мыслителями Пирроном и Демокритом.

Что такое тетралемма?

Когда выбор между двумя вариантами не срабатывает в полной мере, мы находимся в состоянии ограниченности, скованности условиями. Тетралемма – это четыре подхода, расширение взгляда, которое открывает возможность действовать иначе при тех же первоначальных условиях. 

Вернемся к моему примеру с продажей бизнеса. Фактически мы столкнулись с двумя вариантами – «продавать и строить новое дело» и «не продавать и продолжать имеющееся». Как превратить ее в тетралемму, если других бизнесов как бы нет?

Ответ в том, что тетралемма – это не выбор между бизнесами, это увеличение количества вариантов решения возникшего вопроса. Давайте посмотрим на схему:

Как вы наглядно видите, сделав взгляд немного шире, мы имеем сразу четыре варианта решения проблемы. В нашем случае они следующие:

1. Продать бизнес и строить новое дело.
2. Не продавать бизнес и продолжать старое дело.
3. Продать бизнес и не продавать бизнес: то есть предложить покупателю выкупить часть дела или же вступить с ним в партнерские взаимоотношения с откупными.
4. Не выбирать ни то, ни другое, а вообще, например, продолжить и свое дело, и начать задуманное новое, но меньшими темпами. Или же оставить все, и заняться чем-то третьим. Здесь открывается возможность для разных идей.

Скажу сразу, мы попробовали в деле третий и четвертый подходы. Выкупить только часть бизнеса покупателю было неинтересно, пригласить нас на поддержку наших проектов на длительный срок с оплатой – тоже, поэтому мы решили не продавать бизнес, но перераспределить ресурсы внутри него таким образом, чтобы можно было начинать новый интересный нам проект, который впоследствии стал одним из основных, удвоив прибыль.

Тетралемма для решения личностных кризисов

Когда наш ум находится в коллапсе, то нам может быть сложно с психологической точки зрения использовать метод дилеммы, если мы выбираем, например, какую-то подходящую роль или оценку, ограниченную другой, ранее принятой. 

Например, на пике успеха человек может решить, что он гениальный руководитель, а в моменты ошибок считать себя самым неудачным начальником. Когда с помощью метода тетралеммы он дает себе варианты быть и тем, и другим в зависимости от условий, или же ни тем, ни другим, понимая свои ограничения и возможности, то диссонанс пропадает и приходит освобождение от жестких убеждений, мешающих действовать продуктивно. Так приходит целостность.

Женщины, занимающие высокие должности или управляющие компаниями и при этом имеющие семью и детей, нередко оказываются в условиях выбора своей социальной роли: кто я – мама и жена или же высококлассный руководитель? (К мужчинам это тоже относится). Хочется быть и тем, и другим, особенно, когда получается и в тебе нуждаются в обеих сферах жизни. Конечно, когда дети маленькие и для здорового взросления им требуется внимание матери, этот вопрос практически не стоит, но со временем возникает снова. 

Когда такая женщина находится дома, ее мысли частенько уходят в работу. В офисе она страдает от чувства вины, что так мало времени проводит с семьей. Согласитесь, это изматывает. Дилемма – приходится все время выбирать. Однако, если расширить свой взгляд до 4 точек зрения, то, возможно, придут новые понимания.

1. Я выбираю быть руководителем, востребованным специалистом. Рассматриваем эту роль с разных сторон: как женщина в ней действует, какие качества проявляет, какое это состояние ума. Каковы будут плюсы и потери от принятия данного решения.
2. Я выбираю быть матерью и женой. Это уже иной подход к построению жизни, другие ритмы, чувства, свои плюсы и минусы. И этот вариант, напомню, также нравится женщине, иначе не было бы и выбора.
3. Расширяем свой взгляд до третьей позиции: я одновременно и то, и другое – и руководитель, и мама. Почему бы и нет? Только что это казалось абсолютно невозможным и несовместимым, но когда мы отпускаем жесткий взгляд на вещи, то видим точки соприкосновения двух ролей: можно строить карьеру и быть качественно внутри семьи. Женщина разрешает себе плавно переключаться между этими двумя своими состояниями, опираясь на внешние условия, при этом продумывает, каким образом ее могут подменить и на работе (помощник, заместитель), и дома (бабушка, няня). Не зацикливаясь на выборе одной роли, она позволяет себе быть любой, концентрируясь не на внутреннем конфликте, а на его решении.
4. Еще больше расширяем взгляд: я ни то, ни другое – ни мама и жена, ни руководитель. А разве так можно? В нашем уме мы можем все, главное, допустить это. Когда я дома, я не руководитель, когда я в офисе, я не мама и жена. Или по-другому, я мама-бизнесмен. 

Когда распадается концепция, мы имеем ресурс для выбора, и вариантов оказывается три-пять-десять.

Например, я могу иногда работать прямо из дома или с телефона, находясь в аквапарке с семьей. Я могу быть дома и работать, пока ребенок занят или спит, остальное время посвящать семье. Или я могу покупать ужин в любимом всей семьей ресторане, проводя лишний нужный час в офисе. Или совсем необычный вариант: сегодня я – подруга и могу оставить семью на мужа, а работу на помощника и пару дней перезагрузиться, чтобы снять лишний стресс и вернуться уже с большими силами. Я могу!

Сила тетралеммы, как вы, наверное, поняли, разбить концепцию, в рамках которой мы держимся за один вариант решения проблемы. Это болезненно. Но когда мы разрешаем себе выбирать, цепи спадают и мы можем взглянуть на ситуацию гибче.

Тетралемма в бизнесе

Классический подход в бизнесе предполагает жесткую постановку задачи и дедлайна ее решения. Гибкий предполагает возможные изменения на каждом этапе развития, поэтому шаги в нем делаются небольшими, после чего происходит оценка ситуации и задается новый вектор. У каждого из них есть свои плюсы и минусы. 

• Сила классического подхода – в жесткой дисциплине и планировании, когда весь процесс прописан пошагово и четко известен результат работы.
• Сила гибкого подхода – в возможности быстро реагировать на внешние перемены, подстраиваясь под обстоятельства и условия без потери качества.

Выбрать одну стратегию бывает непросто, особенно если в команде руководителей разные мнения. Однако, применяя метод тетралеммы, становится понятно, что вариантов всегда больше, чем два.

Если вы в полной мере понимаете принципы работы обоих подходов, то вполне возможно их сочетать: использовать систему жесткого планирования с постановкой задач и дедлайнов, дополняя ее периодическими встречами, проясняющими внутренние проблемы и применяя к ним более гибкое, незапланированное ранее решение. 

А как же быть с четвертой точкой зрения? Отказаться от обоих подходов? Да! В большей степени это касается внутренних шагов для большой цели. Для многих задач совершенно нет необходимости создавать отдельный проект, они решаются в рамках обычного рабочего процесса, без дополнительных инструкций. Кроме того, можно просто отдать задачу из на аутсорс, когда мы имеем только две точки контроля – на входе и на выходе, и применять классический или гибкий подход нет необходимости. 

Заключение

В жизни или в бизнесе нам всегда важно понимать, что выхода из положения больше, чем два – «да» или «нет». Имеет смысл разбивать свою зацикленность, приводящую к стрессу и ступору, пониманием, что всегда можно принять оба варианта или отказаться от них вовсе в пользу третьего. Такая гибкость ума не даст сбить с толку в критической ситуации, не позволит манипулировать вами, а значит, ум останется ясным для принятия верных решений. Конечно, использование тетралемм потребует тренировок, но усилия обязательно окупятся.

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